The Role of Deviance in World International Society

Emile Durkheim , The Rules of Sociological Method, edited by G.E.G. Catlin (New York: The Free Press , 1938), p. 66.

Ibid., p. 67. Emphasis added.

Ibid., p. 70.

Emile Durkheim , The Division of Labour in society (New York: The Free Press, 1933), p. 102.

Talcott Parsons , The Social System (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1951), p.206,

Ibid., pp. 319-320.

Ibid., p. 250.

Friedrich examined a number of extreme forms of deviant conduct (such as corruption, violence and treason) and concluded that despite the almost universal condemnation that greets these activities they may, nevertheless, serve a necessary political function. In respect of corruption, for example, he concluded that it may help an 'antiquated or obsolete political order' adapt and thus ensure its survival. Carl J. Friedrich , The Pathology of Politics ( New York: Harper and Row, 1972), p. 171.

C.A.W. Manning , The Nature of International Society (London: The London School of Economics, 1962), p. 85. Also Evan Luard , Types of International Society (New York: The Free Press , 1976). Despite Luard's avowedly sociological approach to the analysis of international society, there is no recognition that the sociology of deviance might make a contribution to our understanding of it.

Arnold Wolfers , Discord and Collaboration: Essays on International Politics ( Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962), pp. 240-241.

Martin Wight , 'Why Is There No International Theory?' in Herbert Butterfield and M. Wight , (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966), p. 26.

Karl Deutsch , et.al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), pp. 5-7.

Talcott Parsons , 'Order and Community in the International System', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Politics and Foreign Policy: A Reader in Research and Theory (New York: The Free Press, 1961), p. 127.

Hedley Bull , The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics ( London: MacMilian, 1977), pp. 29, 33-4 and 44.

Ibid., pp. 39 and 315-317. See also James Mayall , 'International Society and International Theory', in Michael D. Donelan (ed.), The Reason of States: A Study in International Political Theory (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1978), p. 136.

Kai T. Erikson, Wayward Puritans : A Study in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: John Wiley, 1966), pp. 10-11.

Ibid., p. 13.

Ibid., pp. 23-27. Durkheim wrote, 'Imagine a society of saints, a perfect cloister of exemplary individuals. Crimes, properly so called, will be there unknown; but faults which appear venial to the layman will create there the same scandal that the ordinary offense does in ordinary consciousness. If, then, this society has the power to judge and punish, it will define these acts as criminal and will treat them as such.' Emile Durkheim , The Rules of Sociological Method, op. cit., pp. 68-69.

Plato. The Republic, trans. by H.D.P. Lee (London: Penguin Books, 1955), pp. 228-230.

Aristotle , The Politics of Aristotle, trans, by Ernest Baker (London: Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 3.

Ibid., 296.

The basis of Popper's criticism of Plato is that he wished, through the formidable propaganda of The Republic to re-create 'tribal heroism' in Greece. Plato experienced the outside world and he rejected what he saw. Karl Popper , The Open Society and Its Enemies: The Spell of Plato, vol. I (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul , 1945), p. 177.

W.W. Tarn , 'Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind' The Raleigh Lecture on History, 1933 (London : H. Milford, 1933), p. 4.

Aristotle, cited in Martin Wight , Systems of States ( London: Leicester University Press and the London School of Economics, 1977), p. 86.

W.W. Tarn , op. cit, p. 7. Tarn argues that the universalism of the Stoics, while never as complete as Alexander's was, nevertheless, acquired from him. Ibid., pp. 14-28.

Hedley Bull , op. cit, p. 317.

When asked if they would support the increased authority of the United Nations to enforce its rules upon member states, the response of United States and Norwegian political and bureaucratic elites was negative. Significantly, the more experience that they had with the United Nations the more hostile they were to the idea. See Robert E. Riggs and I.J. Mykleton , Beyond Functionalism: Attitudes Toward International Organization in Norway and the United States ( Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1979), p. 151.

Sir William Blackstone , Commentaries on the Laws of England, vol. IV (Philadelphia, 1772), p. 71.

Though challenged by the Attorney-General of the Government of Israel in the case of Adolph Eichman, following his abduction from Argentina - see Covey Oliver , 'Judical Decisions,' American Journal of International Law, (Vol. 56, No. 3, 1962), pp. 805-845 - Article VI of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide assigns jurisdiction to a 'competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the act was committed,' or to an 'international penal tribunal.' United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Resolution 260 (iii), 9th December 1948. The tribunal was never created. As genocide is often an expression of public policy, it is understandable that a government might find difficulty in prosecuting itself.

Denys Hay , Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1957), pp. 13-15.

Christine Bolt , Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971), pp. 211-212.

Hugh Tinker , Race, Conflict and International Order (London: MacMillan , 1977), p. 28.

In 1949, when the 'Turks asked to become members of the Council of Europe, there was opposition in the West, on the grounds that the Turks were not, and never could be, a European people.' David Hotham , The Turks (London: John Murray, 1972), p. 3. 34. Edward Said , Orientalism (New York: Random House , 1978).

Ibid., pp. 46-48.

Ibid., p. 207. Emphasis added.

This point is vividly conveyed by Walter Bagchot, who betrayed the influence of Social Darwinism in the sweep of his science. Writing in 1872 he observed that the 'experience of the English in India shows - if it shows anything - that a highly civilised race may fail in producing a rapidly excellent effect on a less civilised race, because it is too good and too different. The two are not en rapport together.... The higher being is not and cannot be a model for the lower; he could not mould himself on it if he would, and would not if he could.' Walter Bagehot , Physics and Politics ( New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), pp. 149-150. The Indian reality was not allowed to penetrate the British image of Indians as 'wayward children' until well into the twentieth century. See Allen J. Greenberger , The British Image of India: Studies in the Literature of Imperialism: 1880-1960 (London: Oxford University Press , 1969), pp. 6-9, 42-44 and 57-58.

Kai T. Erickson , op, cit, p. 9.

Alfred Cobban , The Nation-State and National Self-Determination, revised ed. (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1969), pp. 42-43.

Cobban remarked that 'The Peace Conference [1919] was not faced with the task of creating new states. They had already created themselves out of the disorder into which the defeated powers fell.' Ibid., pp. 55-56.

Ibid., pp. 58 and 66.

Lenin commented that the Russians were the 'executioners of Polish freedom,' see, V.I. Lenin , 'The National Question' (April 1917) in V.I. Lenin , The Right of Nations to Self-Determination: Selected Writings (New York: International Publishers, 1951), p. 121. Also V.I. Lenin , 'Self-Determination of Nations' (August 1915), Ibid, p. 65.

Hugh Tinker , op. cit, p. 27.

Rupert Emerson , Self-Determination Revisited in the Era of Decolonization , Occasional Papers in International Affairs, No. 9 (Harvard University, 1964 ), pp. 1-10.

Ibid., p. 2.

United Nations , General Assembly Resolution 1514 (xv), Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 14 December 1960. Yearbook of the United Nations (New York: United Nations Office of Public Information, 1961), pp. 49-50.

Hugh Tinker , op. cit, p. 63.

Rupert Emerson , op. cit, p. 29.

Leo Kuper , Genocide (London: Penguin Books, 1981), pp. 69-73; 76-80; and 146-149.

Elia T. Zureik , The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979); Stanley B. Greenberg , Race and State in Capitalist Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980); J.S. Frideres , Canada's Indians: Contemporary Conflicts (Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall, 1974), pp. 158-163.

See Harold Wolpe , 'The Theory of Internal Colonialism: the South African Case,' in Ivor Oxaal , et.al., (eds.), Beyond the Sociology of Development (London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975 ), pp. 229-252.

Hugh Tinker , op. cit, p. 131.

Ibid.

Ali Mazrui , Towards a Pax Africana: A Study of Ideology and Ambition (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), pp. 22-23. Martin Wight described 'racial sovereignty' as 'international society ... excogitating a new principle of legitimacy,' in Martin Wight , op. cit, p. 168.

Yearbook of the United Nations, 1946-47 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1947), pp. 144-145.

Report submitted by the Government of India to the United Nations , cited in the Yearbook of the United Nations, 1947-48 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1949), pp. 52-53.

Hugh Tinker , op. cit, p. 132.

Ali Mazrui , The African Condition (London: Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 36.

Ibid., pp. 18-22.

United Nations , Security Council Official Records, S/INF/22/Rev. 2.

United Nations , General Assembly (29th Session, 1974), A/96 31, 4.

Yehoshafat Harkabi, Arab Strategies and Israel's Response (New York: The Free Press, 1977), pp. 4, 19 and 159.

See Article 22 of the Palestinian National Covenant, in Yehoshafat Harkabi , The Palestinian Covenant and Its Meaning (London: Valentine, Mitchell and Co., 1979), pp. 88-90 and 123. On the paradox of the discovery of anti-semitism in some modern Arab writing, see Yehoshafat Harkabi , Arab Attitudes to Israel (London: Valentine, Mitchell and Co., 1972), pp. 218-303.