Despite the great interest in the study of sexual homicide, little is known about the processes involved in an individual’s becoming motivated to sexually kill, deciding to sexually kill, and acting on that desire, intention, and opportunity. To date, no comprehensive model of sexual murdering from the offending perspective has been proposed in the criminological literature. This article incorporates the works of Akers and Cohen and Felson regarding their social learning theory and routine activities theory, respectively, to construct an integrated conceptual offending framework in sexual homicide. This integrated model produces a stronger and more comprehensive explanation of sexual murder than any single theory currently available.
Abel, G.G., & Blanchard, E.B. (1974). The role of fantasy in the treatment of sexual deviation. Archives of General Psychiatry , 30, 467-475.
2.
Akers, R.L. ( 1977). Deviant behavior: A social learning approach (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
3.
Akers, R.L. ( 1985). Deviant behavior: A social learning approach (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
4.
Akers, R.L. ( 1997). Criminological theories: Introduction and evaluation (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
5.
Akers, R.L. ( 1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
6.
Akers, R.L., & Jensen, G.F. ( 2006). The empirical status of social learning theory of crime and deviance: The past, present, and future. In F. T. Cullen, J. P. Wright, & K. R. Blevins (Eds.), Taking stock: The status of criminological theory (pp. 37-76). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
7.
Akers, R.L., & Sellers, C. ( 2008). Criminological theories: Introduction, evaluation, & application (5th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
8.
Amir, A. ( 1971). Patterns of forcible rape. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
9.
Arrigo, B.A., & Purcell, C.E. ( 2001). Explaining paraphilias and lust murder: Toward an integrated model. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45, 6-31.
10.
Bandura, A. ( 1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
11.
Bandura, A. ( 1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
12.
Bandura, A. ( 1978). Social learning theory of aggression. Journal of Communication, 28, 12-29.
13.
Barbaree, H.E., & Marshall, W.L. (1991). The role of male sexual arousal in rape: Six models. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 621-630.
14.
Barbaree, H.E., Marshall, W.L., Yates, E., & Lightfoot, L.O. (1983). Alcohol intoxication and deviant sexual arousal in male social drinkers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 21, 365-373.
15.
Baron, L., & Straus, M.A. ( 1989). Four theories of rape in American society: A state-level analysis. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
16.
Bartholomew, K. ( 1990). Avoidance of intimacy: An attachment perspective. Journal of Social Personal Relationships, 7, 147-178.
17.
Batton, C., & Ogle, R.S. ( 2003). "Who’s it gonna be-you or me?" The potential of social learning for integrated homicide-suicide theory. In R. L. Akers & G. F. Jensen (Eds.), Social learning theory and the explanation of crime (pp. 85-108). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
18.
Beauregard, E., Lussier, P., & Proulx, J. ( 2005). The role of sexual interests and situational factors on rapists’ modus operandi: Implications for offender profiling. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10, 265-278.
19.
Beauregard, E., Proulx, J., & St-Yves, M. (2007). Angry or sadistic: Two types of sexual murderers. In J. Proulx, E. Beauregard, M. Cusson , & A. Nicole (Eds.), Sexual murderers: A comparative analysis and new perspectives (pp. 123-141). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
20.
Beauregard, E., Rossmo, K., & Proulx, J. ( 2007). A descriptive model of the hunting process of serial sex offenders: A rational choice approach. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 449-463.
21.
Beauregard, E., Stone, M.R., Proulx, J., & Michaud, P. ( 2008). Sexual murderers of children: Developmental, precrime, crime, and postcrime factors. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 253-269.
22.
Belknap, J. ( 1987). Routine activities theory and the risk of rape: Analyzing ten years of national crime survey data. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 2, 337-356.
23.
Bellair, P.E., Roscigno, V.J., & Velez, M.B. ( 2003). Occupational structure, social learning, and adolescent violence. In R. L. Akers & G. F. Jensen (Eds.), Social learning theory and the explanation of crime (pp. 197-225). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
24.
Boeringer, S.B., Shehan, C.L., & Akers, R.L. ( 1991). Social context and social learning in sexual coercion and aggression: Assessing the contribution of fraternity membership. Family Relations, 40, 58-64.
25.
Boudreaux, M.C., Lord, W.D., & Jarvis, J.P. ( 2001). Behavioral perspectives on child homicide: The role of access, vulnerability, and routine activities theory. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 2, 56-78.
26.
Brittain, R.P. ( 1970). The sadistic sexual murderers. Medicine, Science, and the Law, 10, 198-207.
27.
Burgess, A.W., Hartman, C.R., & McCormack, A. ( 1987). Abused to abuser: Antecedents of socially deviant behaviors . American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1431-1436.
28.
Burgess, A.W., Hartman, C.R., Ressler, R.K., Douglas, J.E., & McCormack, A. ( 1986). Sexual homicide: A motivational model. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 251-272.
29.
Burgess, R.L., & Akers, R.L. ( 1966). A differential association-reinforcement theory of criminal behavior. Social Problems, 14, 128-147.
30.
Canter, D. ( 1989). Offender profiles. The Psychologist, 2, 12-16.
31.
Cass, A.I. ( 2007). Routine activities and sexual assault: An analysis of individual- and school-level factors. Violence and Victims , 22, 350-366.
32.
Chan, H.C., & Heide, K.M. ( 2008). Weapons used by juveniles and adult offenders in sexual homicides: An empirical analysis of 29 years of US data. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 5, 189-208.
33.
Chan, H.C., & Heide, K.M. ( 2009). Sexual homicide: A synthesis of the literature. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 10, 31-54.
34.
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. ( 1995). Failures in the expectable environment and their impact on individual development: The case of child maltreatment. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Development psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 32-71). New York: John Wiley.
35.
Cohen, L.E., & Felson, M. ( 1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activities approach. American Sociological Review, 44, 588-608.
36.
Cohen, L.E., Kluegel, J.R., & Land, K.C. ( 1981). Social inequality and criminal victimization. American Sociological Review, 46, 505-524.
37.
Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. ( 1970). The report of the commission on obscenity and pornography . New York: Bantam.
38.
Cook, P.E., & Hinman, D.L. ( 1999). Serial murder. In H. V. Hall (Ed.), Lethal violence: A sourcebook on fatal, domestic, acquaintance, and stranger violence (pp. 363-382). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
39.
De Coster, S., Estes, S.B., & Mueller, C.W. ( 1999). Routine activities and sexual harassment in the workplace . Work and Occupations, 26, 21-49.
40.
Dent, R.J., & Jowitt, S. ( 2003). Homicide and serious sexual offenses committed by children and young people: Findings from the literature and a serious case review. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 9, 85-96.
41.
Dietz, P.E., Hazelwood, M.S., & Warren, D.S.W. (1990). The sexually sadistic criminal and his offenses. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 16, 163-178.
42.
Donnerstein, E., & Linz, D. ( 1995). The media. In J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime (pp. 237-266). Oakland, CA: ICS Press.
43.
Donnerstein, E., Linz, D., & Penrod, S. ( 1987). The questions of pornography. New York: Free Press.
44.
Dworkin, A. ( 1979). Pornography: Men possessing women. New York: G. P. Putnam.
45.
Ellis, L. ( 1989). Theories of rape: Inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression. New York: Hemisphere .
46.
Eth, S., & Pynoos, R.S. ( 1985). Developmental perspective on psychic trauma in childhood . In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (pp. 36-52). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
47.
Fagan, J., & Wexler, S. ( 1987). Family origins of violent delinquents. Criminology, 24, 439-471.
48.
Felson, M., & Cohen, L. ( 1980). Human ecology and crime: A routine activities approach . Human Ecology, 8, 389-406.
49.
Felson, R. ( 1997). Routine activities and involvement in violence as actor, witness, or target. Violence and Victims, 12, 209-221.
50.
Fernandez, A., & Lizotte, A. ( 1995). An analysis of the relationship between campus crime and community crime: Reciprocal effects? In J. Sloan & B. Fisher (Eds.), Campus crime: Legal, social, and policy perspectives (pp. 79-102). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
51.
Fisher, B., Cullen, F., & Turner, M. ( 2000). The sexual victimization of college women. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
52.
Flowers, R.B. ( 2006). Sex crimes, predators, perpetrators, prostitutes, and victims: An examination of sexual criminality and victimization (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
53.
Ford, B.F., Pearson, E., & Kennedy, H. ( 2009, April 23). Cops have Phillip Markoff, suspected "Craigslist Killer" of model Julissa Brisman, in custody. New York Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/news/ny_crime/2009/04/20/2009-04-20_massachussetts_police_arrest_suspect_in_craigslist_killer_case.html
54.
Fox, J.G., & Sobol, J.J. ( 2000). Drinking patterns, social interaction, and barroom behavior: A routine activities approach. Deviant Behavior, 21, 429-450.
55.
Giannangelo, S.J. ( 1996). The psychopathology of serial murder: A theory of violence . Westport, CT: Praeger.
56.
Graney, D.J., & Arrigo, B.A. ( 2002). The power serial rapist: A criminology-victimology typology of female victim selection. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
57.
Gray, S.H. ( 1982). Exposure to pornography and aggression toward women: The case of the angry male. Social Problems, 29, 389-397.
58.
Grubin, D. ( 1994). Sexual murder. British Journal of Psychiatry , 165, 624-629.
59.
Hazelwood, R.R., & Warren, J. ( 2000). The sexually violent offender: Impulsive or ritualistic ? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 267-279.
Heide, K.M. ( 1999). Young killers: The challenge of juvenile homicide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
62.
Heide, K.M. ( 2003). Youth homicide: A review of the literature and a blueprint for action. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 6-36.
63.
Heide, K.M., Beauregard, E., & Myers, W.C. ( 2009). Sexually motivated child abduction murders: Synthesis of the literature and case illustration. Victims & Offenders , 4, 58-75.
64.
Heide, K.M., & Solomon, E.P. ( 2006). Biology, childhood trauma, and murder: Rethinking justice . International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 29, 220-233.
65.
Heide, K.M., & Solomon, E.P. ( 2009). Female juvenile murderers: Biological and psychological factors leading to homicide. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32, 189-272.
66.
Hickey, E. ( 2002). Serial murderers and their victims (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth .
67.
Hill, A., Habermann, N., Berner, W., & Briken, P. ( 2007). Psychiatric disorders in single and multiple sexual murderers . Psychopathology, 40, 22-28.
68.
Holmes, R.M., & Holmes, S.T. ( 2001). Murder in America (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
69.
Hough, M. ( 1987). Offenders’ choice of target: Findings from victim surveys. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 355-369.
70.
Hwang, S., & Akers, R.L. ( 2003). Substance use by Korean adolescents: A cross-cultural test of social learning, social bonding, and self-control theories. In R. L. Akers & G. F. Jensen (Eds.), Social learning theory and the explanation of crime (pp. 39-64). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
71.
Jackson, H.J., Lee, J.K.P., Pattison, P., & Ward, T. ( 2002). Developmental risk factors for sexual offending. Child Abuse and Neglect: The International Journal, 26, 73-92.
72.
Kennedy, L.W., & Forde, D.R. ( 1990). Routine activities and crime: An analysis of victimization in Canada. Criminology, 28, 137-152.
73.
Kienlen, K.K., Birmingham, D.L., Solberg, K.B., O’Regan, J.T., & Meloy, J.R. ( 1997). A comparative study of psychotic and nonpsychotic stalking . Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 25, 317-334.
74.
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W.B., Martin, C.C., & Gebhard, P. ( 1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders.
75.
Krohn, M.D., Skinner, W.F., Massey, J.L., & Akers, R.L. ( 1985). Social learning theory and adolescent cigarette smoking: A longitudinal study. Social Problems, 32, 455-473.
76.
Langevin, R. ( 2003). A study of the psychosexual characteristics of sex killers: Can we identify them before it is too late? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 366-382.
77.
Langevin, R., Ben-Aron, M.H., Wright, P., Marchese, V., & Handy, L. ( 1988). The sex killer. Annals of Sex Research , 1, 263-302.
78.
Langevin, R., Lang, R.A., & Curnoe, S. ( 1998). The prevalence of sexual offenders with deviant fantasies . Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 315-327.
79.
Laws, D.R., & Marshall, W.L. (1990). A conditioning theory of the etiology and maintenance of deviant sexual preference and behavior. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment (pp. 209-229). New York: Plenum.
80.
Lunde, D.T. ( 1976). Murder and madness. San Francisco, CA: San Francisco Book Co.
81.
Lussier, P., Beauregard, E., Proulx, J., & Nicole, A. ( 2005). Developmental factors related to deviant sexual preferences in child molesters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 999-1017.
82.
MacCulloch, M.J., Snowden, P.R., Wood, P.J.W., & Mills, H.E. ( 1983). Sadistic fantasy, sadistic behavior, and offending. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 20-29.
83.
MacKinnon, C.A. ( 1984). Not a moral issue. Yale Law and Policy Review, 2, 321-345.
84.
Main, M. ( 1996). Introduction to the special section on attachment and psychopathology: Overview of the field of attachment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 237-243.
85.
Marshall, W.L. ( 1989). Intimacy, loneliness, and sexual offenders. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 27, 491-503.
86.
Marshall, W.L. ( 1993). The role of attachment, intimacy, and loneliness in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 8, 109-121.
87.
Marshall, W.L., & Barbaree, H.E. (1990). An integrated theory of the etiology of sexual offending. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment of the offender (pp. 257-275). New York: Plenum.
88.
Marshall, W.L., & Eccles, A. ( 1993). Pavlovian conditioning processes in adolescent sex offenders . In H. E. Barbaree, W. L. Marshall, & S. M. Hudson (Eds.), The juvenile sex offenders (pp. 118-142). New York: Guilford.
89.
Marshall, W.L., Hudson, S.M., & Hodkinson, S. ( 1993). The importance of attachment bonds in the development of juvenile sex offending. In H. E. Barbaree , W. L. Marshall, & S. M. Hudson (Eds.), The juvenile sex offenders (pp. 164-181). New York: Guilford .
90.
Martens, W.H.J., & Palermo, G.B. ( 2005). Loneliness and associated violent antisocial behavior: Analysis of the case reports of Jeffrey Dahmer and Dennis Nilsen. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 298-307.
91.
McCord, J. ( 1991a). Family relationships, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality. Criminology, 29, 397-417.
92.
McCord, J. ( 1991b). The cycle of crime and socialization practices. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 211-228.
93.
McCormack, T. ( 1978). Machismo in media research: A critical review of research on violence and pornography. Social Problems, 25, 544-555.
94.
McGuire, R.J., Carlisle, J.M., & Young, B.G. ( 1965). Sexual deviations as conditioned behaviour: A hypothesis . Behavior Research and Therapy, 2, 185-190.
95.
McNamara, J.J., & Morton, R.J. ( 2004). Frequency of serial sexual homicide victimization in Virginia for a ten-year period. Journal of Forensic Sciences , 49, 1-5.
96.
Meloy, J.R. ( 1996). Stalking (obsessional following): A review of some preliminary studies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 147-162.
97.
Meloy, J.R. ( 1997). The clinical risk management of stalking: "Someone is watching over me . . . ." American Journal of Psychotherapy , 51, 174-184.
98.
Meloy, J.R. ( 2000). The nature and dynamics of sexual homicide: An integrative review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 1-32.
99.
Mieczkowski, T., & Beauregard, E. (2009). Lethal outcome in sexual assault events: A conjunctive analysis. Justice Quarterly . doi:10.1080/07418820902960105
100.
Mihalic, S.W., & Elliott, D. ( 1997). A social learning theory model of marital violence. Journal of Family Violence, 12, 1997.
101.
Missing persons-Jason Rodney Galehouse. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://crimesearchersonline.com/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&sobi2Id=1255&Itemid=29
102.
Mustaine, E.E., & Tewksbury, R. ( 2002). Sexual assault of college women: A feminist interpretation of a routine activities analysis. Criminal Justice Review , 27, 89-123.
103.
Myers, W.C. ( 2004). Serial murder by children and adolescents. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 357-374.
104.
Myers, W.C., Burgess, A.W., & Nelson, J.A. ( 1998). Criminal and behavioral aspects of juvenile sexual homicide . Journal of Forensic Sciences, 43, 340-347.
105.
Myers, W.C., Eggleston, C.F., & Smoak, P. ( 2003). A media violence-inspired juvenile sexual homicide offender 13 years later. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 48, 1-5.
106.
Myers, W.C., Husted, D.S., Safarik, M.E., & O’Toole, M.E. (2006). The motivation behind serial sexual homicide: Is it sex, power, and control, or anger?Journal of Forensic Sciences, 51, 900-907.
107.
Nicole, A., & Proulx, J. ( 2007). Sexual murderers and sexual aggressors: Developmental paths and criminal history. In J. Proulx, E. Beauregard, M. Cusson , & A. Nicole (Eds.), Sexual murderers: A comparative analysis and new perspectives (pp. 29-50). Chichester , UK: Wiley.
108.
Ouimet, M., Guay, J.P., & Proulx, J. ( 2000). Analyse de la Gravité des Agressions Sexuelles de Femmes Adultes et de ses Déterminants [Analysis of the determinants of the seriousness of sexual aggressions against women]. Revue Internationale de Criminologie et de Police Technique et Scientifique , 2, 157-172.
109.
Palermo, G.B. ( 2004). The faces of violence (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas .
110.
Patterson, G.R. ( 1975). Families: Applications of social learning to family life . Champaign, IL: Research Press .
111.
Prentky, R.A., Burgess, A.W., Rokous, F., Lee, A., Hartman, C., Ressler, R., & Douglas, J. ( 1989). The presumptive role of fantasy in serial sexual homicide . American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 887-891.
112.
Presley, C.A. ( 1997). Alcohol and drugs on American college campuses: Issues of violence and harassment. Carbondale: Core Institute, Southern Illinois University.
113.
Proulx, J., Beauregard, E., Cusson, M., & Nicole, A. ( 2007). Sexual murderers: A comparative analysis and new perspectives . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
114.
Proulx, J., McKibben, A., & Lusignan, R. ( 1996). Relationship between affective components and sexual behaviors in sexual aggressors. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment, 8, 279-289.
115.
Purcell, C.E., & Arrigo, B.A. ( 2006). The psychology of lust murder: Paraphilia, sexual killing, and serial homicide. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
116.
Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., & Douglas, J.E. ( 1988). Sexual homicide: Patterns and motive. New York: Free Press.
117.
Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., Douglas, J.E., Hartman, C.R., & D’Agostino, R.B. (1986). Sexual killers and their victims: Identifying patterns through crime scene. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 288-308.
118.
Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., Hartman, C.R., Douglas, J.E., & McCormack, A. ( 1986). Murderers who rape and mutilate. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 273-287.
119.
Rossmo, K.D. ( 1999). Geographic profiling. New York: CRC Press.
120.
Safarik, M.E., Jarvis, J.P., & Nussbaum, K.E. (2002). Sexual homicide of elderly females: Linking offender characteristics to victim and crime scene attributes . Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 500-525.
121.
Salfati, C.G., James, A.R., & Ferguson, L. ( 2008). Prostitute homicides: A descriptive study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 505-543.
122.
Sampson, R., & Lauritsen, J. ( 1990). Deviant lifestyles, proximity to crime, and the offender-victim link in personal violence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27, 110-139.
123.
Schwartz, M., & Pitts, V. ( 1995). Exploring a feminist routine activities approach to explaining sexual assault. Justice Quarterly, 12, 9-31.
124.
Schwartz, M.D., DeKeseredy, W.S., Tait, D., & Alvi, S. ( 2001). Male peer support and a feminist routine actitivies theory: Understanding sexual assault on the college campus. Justice Quarterly, 18, 623-649.
125.
Sellers, C.S., Cochran, J.K., & Branch, K.A. ( 2005). Social learning theory and partner violence: A research note. Deviant Behavior, 26, 379-395.
126.
Sherley, A.J. ( 2005). Contextualizing the sexual assault event: Images from police files. Deviant Behavior, 26, 87-108.
127.
Silva, J.A., Ferrari, M.M., & Leong, G.B. ( 2002). The case of Jeffrey Dahmer: Sexual serial homicide from a neuropsychiatric developmental perspective. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47, 1-13.
128.
Smallbone, S., Marshall, W.L., & Wortley, R. ( 2008). Preventing child sexual abuse: Evidence, policy and practice . Devon, UK: Willan.
129.
Spitzberg, B.H., & Cupach, W.R. ( 2003). What mad pursuit? Obsessive relational intrusion and stalking related phenomena. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 8, 345-375.
130.
Stone, M.H. ( 2001). Serial sexual homicide: Biological, psychological, and sociological aspects. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 1-18.
131.
Straus, M. ( 1990). Ordinary violence, child abuse, and wife beating: What do they have in common? In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 133-148). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
132.
Tewksbury, R., & Mustaine, E.E. (2001). Lifestyle factors association with the sexual assault of men: A routine activity theory analysis. Journal of Men’s Studies, 9, 153-182.
133.
Tewksbury, R., Mustaine, E.E., & Stengel, K.M. ( 2008). Examining rates of sexual offenses from a routine activities perspective. Victims and Offenders, 3, 75-85.
134.
Ward, T., Hudson, S.M., Marshall, W.L., & Siegert, R. ( 1995). Attachment style and intimacy deficits in sexual offenders: A theoretical framework. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, 317-335.
135.
Warr, M. ( 2002). Companions in crime: The social aspects of criminal conduct . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
136.
Warren, J.I., Hazelwood, R.R., & Dietz, P.E. ( 1996). The sexually sadistic serial killer. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41, 970-974.
137.
Wilson, W., & Nakajo, H. ( 1965). Preference for photographs as a function of frequency of presentation. Psychonomic Science, 3, 577-578.
138.
Wittebrood, K., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (2000). Criminal victimization during one’s life course: The effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 91-122.
