The Patterns of Bone Technology in Ancient Kashi (1300 bc to 300 ad )

Introduction

Today, when we take such pride in the evolving nature of technology in the twenty-first century, the most important factor behind it is the history of technological development hidden in the womb of the past. Every link of the development of technology from time immemorial to modern times is associated with the development of human civilisation. Every object of technology, from bricks and stones to metal, wood and bone tools have been found in the excavation of archaeological sites. Although scholars influenced by the colonial mindset continue to deny the scientific development of technology in India; it is quite clear from the works of James Mill and V. A. Smith that India was a rooted society, where scientific progress and technological development were completely blocked. It is not only that there was dissent among scholars, but many times it is seen that scientific instruments from ancient ruins were ignored or destroyed by the scholars. Perhaps this is why it is difficult, if not impossible, to outline the story of the technological development of ancient India. But in the context of regional history, the interrelations of technology and society are studied based on evidence obtained from a particular region, then that page of history automatically comes to the forefront, which a group of scholars has been denying from the beginning. However, many scholars strongly support the rich history of material progress and the technological development of ancient India. In this context, it would be expedient to mention here the excerpts from a speech given by Prafulla Chandra Rai ¹ in 1918 ad; Rai stated that ‘It is generally believed that Hindus were dreamers, mystics … but even today, very few people know that they (Hindus) had a great contribution to the development of experimental sciences’. Devi Prasad Chattopadhyay ² has given a detailed explanation of the scientific development of ancient India in his book ‘Science and Society in Ancient India’. In this treatise, it is mentioned that Kashi was an important centre of medical science; as well as RajaDhanvantari here, considered to be the pioneer of Ayurveda. ³ A King of the same dynasty, Divodas established the first school of ‘surgery’ in Kashi; where Acharya Sushruta was appointed. ⁴ Such Countless facts and sources explain ancient India as well as scientific and technological development in Kashi. At present, new sources are found in the excavation of archaeological sites in the context of a particular region. All these sources contain the political, social, economic, religious, science and technological history of that region. As well as, where they come from, they also relate the physical progress of other remote areas related to it. A historian draws the historical framework of the technological development of a region based on these sources.

Besides, being the seat of learning, Kashi has always captured popular imagination for its impeccable cultural values along with its geographical location amid the fertile plain of the holy river, Ganga. Its revered position among masses, attracted people from all corners of India, to come and reside here to excel not only in worldly knowledge but also to explore the horizon of understanding regarding emancipation or salvation from birth life-cycle, a doctrine enshrined in cultural tenets of ancient Hindu civilisation since time immemorial. If we look into archaeological explorations extracted from the vicinity of areas belonging to ancient Kashi, from the perspective of History writing, we get valuable insights into the period that was rich in affluent bone technology. Furthermore, this cutting-edge technology of the above-said period also unveils the pervasive superior human and natural resources, which is pre-emptive for technological advancement of any reason. When an overview of the historical findings of this state is made, then it is known that this state has been the site of research for many scholars for about a quarter of 200 years. Scholars have given a detailed explanation of Kashi’s politics, culture-society and religion and art based on archaeological and literary sources. Today, new archaeological explorations can underline the technological development of human civilisation inhabited in the ancient Kashi region. To be honest, it is not possible to tell the entire technological development of ancient Kashi ⁵ (modern Varanasi, Bhadohi, Mirzapur, Chandauli, Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Azamgarh, Ballia district) through this brief research article. Therefore, an attempt has been made to present a historical analysis of bone technology only through the archaeology and literary sources of Kashi. Although thousands of types of equipment have been obtained from many sites in the Kashi region; those are made from stone to metal and bone. Through historical analysis of bone instruments from the perspective of technology and society, it comes to the knowledge that the people of ancient Kashi used various instruments of bone in their daily life. Various objects of bone have been obtained from ancient sites like Rajghat, ⁶ Aktha, ⁷ Sarai Mohana, ⁸ Oriaghat, ⁹ Prahladpur, ¹⁰ Agiabir, ¹¹ Khairadih, ¹² etc., of the Kashi region (Figure 1). We also get to know about bone technology from literary sources. There is a brief description of such sites of Kashi from where the bone tools are obtained.

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Figure 1.

Source: The author.

The Kashi Region and its Historical Background

Kashi is a part of the middle ganges plain. The present Varanasi city is situated on the left bank of the Ganges, whose geographical location is 28°18’ N. latitude and 83°1’ E. longitude. ¹³ It was the capital city of Kashi Janapada. When it was reorganized as the merger of the Banaras state with the district of Benares on 15 October 1949, then its geographical location was between 24°43’ and 25°35’ N. latitude and 82°11’ and 83°34’ E. longitude. ¹⁴ Its length was 82 miles east to west and 58 miles north to south and maximum height was 268 feet above sea level. ¹⁵ Although at different places, its value was also less and more, this existed even till today. The present Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi) and Chandauli districts were part of the Varanasi district at the time of the reorganization of Benares. The district was divided into four tehsils, Varanasi, Chandauli, Bhadohi and Chakia. ¹⁶ Thus, the assimilated covered area in this region was 1965 miles. ¹⁷ However, the area of the district is reduced to 598 miles today, because Bhadohi and Chandauli have been established as separate districts.

Thus the archaeological and literary sources unveil that the kingdom of ancient Kashi was spread over a vast area. Jataka ¹⁸ tales mention the extent of the Kashi state 300 Yojan and Baranasi city about 12 Yojan. During the Janapada period, Kashi had an independent position, and Magadha, Kosal and Vatsa were under it. Later, these states became independent, then the geographical expansion of the Janapada decreased, and thus Magadha was in the east of Kashi, Vatsa in the west, Kosal kingdom in the north, and Son river flowed in the south. ¹⁹ In the context of surrounding states, Cunningham ²⁰ writes, its possible boundaries can be drawn from Gomti river in the north, from Gomati river to Allahabad, from Tons to Bilhari in the west, and from Bilhari to Sonhat in the south and the Rihand, Karmansha and Ganga rivers in the east. Although according to the geographical situation described in the Assak Jataka (in pre-Buddha period), the kingdom of Kashi was extended to the coast of the Godavari in the south, because in this Jataka, Potli Nagar, the capital of the Assak state, has been described as the city of Kashi state. ²¹ This situation of Kashi Janapada must have been when was the ruled of Kashi over Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa. Later, the state of Magadha was finally successful in the mutual conflicts of the states, after which the rule of Maurya, Shuga, Kushana and Bharashivas ruled over Kashi state. The sources candidly depict the prosperous societal life of its inhabitants in the backdrop of rich culture.

Yuan Chwang ²² writes in the seventh centuary

The kingdom of Kashi or Varanasi was, 4000 li, or 667 miles, in circuit, and the capital, which was on the western bank of Ganges, was from 18 to 19 li, or 3 miles, in leng, and from 5 to 6 li, or 1 miles, in breadth.

According to Altekar, ²³ the Janapada of Kashi was 100 miles to the east and 250 miles to the north-west because its east was the neighboring Janapada of Magadha and the north-west neighboring Janapada was Panchal. Rahul Sankrityayan ²⁴ believes that the modern Banaras commissioneries is the only representative of the ancient Kashi Janapada. Thus, ancient Kashi was extended to present-day Banaras, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Azamgarh, Sonbhadra and most parts of the Ghazipur, Chandauli and Bhadohi.

Ancient literary sources of Kashi did not provide us detailed description regarding climate, rain, temperature, and population. It is known from Buddhist texts and Puranas that ancient Kashi was fulfilled with natural resources. The climate was highly favorable for human habitation due to the dense forests enough rain, rivers, pools, and lakes. Yuan Chwang ²⁵ has described the climate of Varanasi as temperate. Modern research in climate science indicated that the temperate climate is considered optimal for population development. The temperate climate is considered more suitable for human reproduction. A similar climate is responsible for the demographic development of South Asia. This climate is also favorable for plants and animals. Some evergreen and mostly deciduous trees are the botanical features of such a climate. This is also beneficial for human economic development. The Ganges plain receives an average of 40–70 inches of rainfall every year. ²⁶ This much rain is sufficient to produce dense vegetation. The statistics of rainfall obtained from 1891 to 1960 ad in Banaras, According to this there was rain from 30 to 83 inches which is sufficient for dense vegetation in the plains. ²⁷ It may have been more raining in ancient Kashi because adequate water of rivers and forest cover over maximum land is considered responsible for more rainfall. Under the temperate climate, there is mention of four main seasons, summer rain, autumn, and spring. Probably, in ancient Kashi, under the above climate, the sequence of similar seasons continued and changed by seasons. It can be inferred from various crops mentioned in literary sources, Matiyar loam clay soil, Black soil; Sandy loam soil must have been found in the ancient Kashi region.

It is known from literary sources that many rivers were flowing in the ancient Kashi region. Ganga, Varuna, Gomti, Banganga, Nand, Karamnasa, Gadai, Chandraprabha and Asi, Kirana, Dhutpapa, Mandakini, Matsyodari, Brahmanal was a rainy river also flowed in Kashi region. Apart from the rivers, the ponds and lakes are also used to determine the natural outline of ancient Kashi. These rivers have been the chief sources of Kashi’s economic prosperity.

Excavated Sites in Kashi Region

Archaeologists have divided the bone objects obtained from the above-mentioned sites of ancient Kashi into the following categories based on their design:

Double-ended bone points

Double-ended points with one end shorter.

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Table 1.

Showing No. of Bone Tools/Object in Excavated Sites of Ancient Kashi

No.	Excavated Sites	No. of Bone Object
1.	Rajghat (Kashi)	514
2.	Aktha	22
3.	Oriaghat (Ramnagar)	59
4.	Sarai Mohana	64
5.	Raja-Nala-Ka-Tila	NA
6.	Malahar	NA
7.	Prahladpur	22
8.	Masaondih or Masaon	NA
9.	Agiabir	205
10.	Anai	30
11.	Khairadih	118

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Source: The author.

The type of bone tools that have been found are mainly, Arrowheads, Bone points, Chisels, Borers, Scrapers, Scraper-cum-points and Scraper-cum-Chisels, Awls, Perforators, Flenser tools, Needles, Bodkins, Nib-like points, Stylus, Digging tools, etc. These tools can be clearly understood from Figures 3 to 13).

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Figure 3.

Source: Narain and Roy, The Excavations at Prahladpur.

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Figure 4.

Source: Jayaswal et al., Varanasi and Ganga.

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Figure 5.

Source: Narain and Roy, The Excavations at Prahladpur.

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Figure 6.

Source: Singh and Singh, Excavations at Sarai Mohana.

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Figure 7.

Source: 1. Narain and Roy, The Excavations at Prahladpur (7A & 7B).

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Figure 8.

Source: Singh and Rai, Excavations at Khairadih.

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Figure 9.

Source: Narain and Roy, The Excavations at Prahladpur.

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Figure 10.

Source: Tripathi and Upadhyay, A Rural Settlement.

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Figure 11.

Source: Narain and Roy, The Excavations at Prahladpur.

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Figure 12.

Source: Singh and Singh, ‘Excavations at Agiabir’.

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Figure 13.

Source: Singh and Singh, ‘Excavations at Agiabir’.

Specimen’s Interpretation

Discussion

The history of bone technology in Kashi has also been well-acclaimed for its impeccable role for the scientific interpretation of history. It is also worthful to mention that the ‘Bone objects’ from the Narhan culture to third century ad, have been obtained on a large scale from various sites of Kashi region (Table1). Moreover, it is needless to say, these bone tools were related to the physical culture of human life. Also, by looking at these bone tools, it seems that these bone tools had a vital role in the prosperity of human civilisation in Kashi. Thereby, they were used extensively for the prosperity of material culture.

But, to quench the thirst regarding the utmost important question that remains crucial to answer, even after the achievement of metal (copper and iron) equipment, what was the significance of the bone equipment on such a large scale? To answer this question, in our preliminary study, we found that the early iron tools were not made as small as the bone tools could be designed and made. The simple reason for this is that the early iron tools were made from wrought iron. However, the sources revealed that in a later period, small tools had also been made from copper and iron. Nevertheless, it seems that the universality of bones proved to be a milestone in the development of bone technology as well as bone tools were given as much importance as the metal tools due to their strong texture and not prompt erosion. Over time, despite bone tools being found in small quantities, they were in use from ancient to the medieval period, and also have been linked to the cultural sequence up to the Mughal period.

The large number of bone tools, extracted from excavation, is arrowheads. There are candid inferences that these arrowheads must have been used by the hunters for hunting animals for their livelihood. So far, many such tools have been found in an excavation, which can be placed in the category of weapon tools. Such bone tools were used as major resources of human livelihood. In this backdrop, evidence of the Chullanandiya Jataka, ⁸² which flashes a story and narrates that,

A Brahmin resident of Varanasi went to Taxila and came back to Varanasi after learning all kinds of teachings from a well-known Acharya. He settled in his home and thought that I would not be able to make a living from any other purpose, so I would live with a bow. I will burn my livelihood as a nomadic. Thereafter, he left Varanasi (city) and lived in a village near the forest. He used to go that the nearby forest with a bow and arrow; where he hunted various animals, sold their flesh, and started to make a living.

In many such Jataka tales, there is a profound description of the livelihood of the inhabitants of Kashi by hunting animals and birds. It is possible that all types of arrowheads and bone points were made primarily for hunting wild animals.

It can be contended regarding the practices of humankind, then as the Jataka literature refers that there was a section of people in Kashi who only hunted and supplied meat in the city or other rural areas, and that is why a huge number of arrowheads and bone points have been found in the Kashi region. However, the bulk of the meat supply would have been met by animal husbandry. However, it is not possible to observe all kinds of animals and birds by human beings. As mentioned in the Kurungaming Jataka, ⁸³ ‘A villager used to hunt deer, sell his meat and make a living’. Asoka’s Rock Edicts mentions that his deer were slaughtered daily in his kitchen. Thus, it is clear that the meat of deer has been liked by people very much in ancient times. This is the reason why such wild animals were hunted by hunters to earn a living. The pieces of cut bone found from Rajghat and other excavated sites indicate the above facts only.

The most important reason for the flourishing of bone tools found from various archaeological sites in the Kashi region is that wild animals and cattle were used for meat on a large scale and various kinds of tools were made from the bones which were obtained from it. All these processes depended on each other, which can be understood through the following sketch

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However, it is not yet possible to conclude based on known sources that animals were killed only for bone objects or to manufacture bone tools from the dead animal’s bones. In this context, as far as I believe that after receiving meat from hunted animals or cattle, their bones would have been used in bone technology because some of the bone objects found from the archaeological sites suggest that they were cut with sharp weapons. Thus, animal husbandry would also have proved to be helpful in the development of bone technology. A large number of bone objects have been found in the excavation of Rajghat, ⁸⁴ which belong to domesticated animals, such as goat, sheep, ox, pig, etc. The bones obtained from these animals may have been fabricated by craftsmen as useful tools.

Along with the developed form of hunting and agriculture, fishing by people is also the main means of livelihood. Numerous barbed bone tools have also been found in the excavation of archaeological sites. Scholars believe that such equipment was used exclusively for fishing. Besides, the role of bone craft in other home appliances cannot be ruled out. It is thus clear that the variation of bone tools was mainly used as tools in non-agricultural or other works. Nevertheless, it can be inferred from the study of bone equipment that obtained that the agricultural sector too would not have remained untouched by these devices. Bone tools have also been used in digging soil and for sowing seeds. It seems to us that when the iron was not prevalent in the rural areas, only the pointed instruments of bone would have been used for ploughing in wooden ploughs. The digging tool is one of the main tools among them.

Bone tools must have been used in Terracotta art. It is known from the practice of literary and archaeological sources that Kashi was a major centre of the art of terracotta craftsmanship. ⁸⁵ The merchants of Kashi used to go to the distant states to sell beautiful pottery made in Kashi. The study of the Jataka tales shows that in the Kashi region there used to be a village of potters, where they used to manufacture utensils. Studies of bone art show that these bone tools were used to create artifacts on ceramics. A bone tool obtained from Prahladpur ⁸⁶ is like the nib of the modern fountainpen, which may have been used to create artefacts on ceramics. Besides, a substantial number of bone tools have been found from other archaeological sites; they can be placed in the categories of one-ended point and double-ended point. Most likely, these tools have been used in carving and engraving on utensils.

Literary sources reveal that ancient Kashi was famous all over India for the textile industry. According to Parinirvana Sutta of Dighnikaya, ⁸⁷ the dead body of Buddha was wrapped in a cloth of Varanasi made of fabric that was so fine and soft-woven that it could not even absorb the oil. The clothes of Kashi were called Kashy, sasi-kuttama, kasiyani, kasikavastra, kasikansu, etc., which are mentioned in Buddhist literature. ⁸⁸ Even in Arthashastra, ⁸⁹ the clothes of Kashi have been termed as Kashyas. When we study the technology used in the textile industry, it seems that bone technology played an important role in this work. It is possible to use bone tools to make and weave fibres. There may have been bone-forming devices used in wrinkles used in textile crafts. Also, many such bone tools have been received, which scholars have considered useful in the weaving of textiles. Needles were used in the stitching of garments; such bone-forming needles have been found in large numbers from archaeological sites. It is thus clear that the textile industry was also not untouched by bone tools.

Bone tools have also been used in the carpentry business. Such tools of bones have been obtained, which scholars have termed tools like Chisels, Borers, Perforators. To pierce wood or shape it into various forms, such devices were used extensively. Even today, these tools (Chisels, Borers and Perforators, etc.) are used by carpenters. Although such devices are made of metal today, the possibility cannot be ruled out that ancient Kashi people used bone tools to make wooden objects. As it is known from literary sources, the carpentry business was quite prosperous in ancient Kashi. It can be believed that bone tools were also very important in the manufacture of bamboo items. Bone tools may have been used in peeling the bamboo and making it into baskets, etc. In Jataka tales, there is a mention of livelihood from bamboo work. ⁹⁰

Bone tools must have been used in the leather business as well. Bone-pointed and sharp tools (like knives) must have been used to remove the skin from dead animals. Also, the role of bone tools cannot be ruled out by cutting leather and sewing it and making many things. Leather items were very useful for making umbrellas, shoes and liquids. Needles, bodkins and other micro-point tools may have been used to stitch leather.

Evidence of making jewellery using bone tools is found in the ancient Kashi and its archaeological sites. Bone-beads have been found at several cultural levels from the Kashi–Rajghat ⁹¹ site. Spherical, standard cylinder circular, short truncated bi-cone, circular tabular, standard twisted pentagon, disc bead, are obtained from here. Spherical beads have been found at Hastinapura, ⁹² Nasik ⁹³ and Brahmapuri. ⁹⁴ Cylindrical, circular beads have been found at the Ahichchhatra. ⁹⁵ Bone-made jewellery has also been found from Oriaghat ⁹⁶ and Prahladpur. ⁹⁷ Bone rings have been obtained from the Khairadih ⁹⁸ site. Apart from this, bone-made earrings, bangles, amulets, pendants (pendants), etc., have been obtained. All these ornaments reflect the aesthetic sense of the people of Kashi. The pendants are usually made up of bones, shells and teeth. Besides, stylus and combs were probably used for hairdressing purposes.

Conclusion

Finally, through the investigation of bone-built instruments and the design of jewellery, it can be derived that (during 1300BC–300AD) they were used on a large scale. In the backdrop of this theme, the study explores the rich knowledge of the bone technology of ancient Kashi. Arrowhead, bone point, chisels, borers, scrapers, sets, perforators, needles, bodkins, nib, digging tools, etc., were the main tools. These tools reflect the technological richness and advancement of the people of Kashi. Sometimes metal and wood appliances were also used as a combination. This study points out the different patterns of colour combinations and the unique style of polishing on these instruments. The excessive use of bones reflects the high consumption of meat as a food habit in the region. The critical analysis of these types of tools/objects suggests that the people who built them represented different social and economic groups, which affected the survival of human settlements and the utility of such items. It is thus clear that the equipment made by bone technology was one of the main factors in the progress and prosperity of local human life.