Essential Fatty Acids and the Brain

Yehuda S Rabinovitz S Mostofsky DI . Essential fatty acids are mediators of brain biochemistry and cognitive functions. J Neurosci Res 1999;56:565–70.

Bourre JM Francois M Youyou A Dumont O Piciotti M Pascal G , and others The effects of dietary α-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats. J Nutr 1989;119:1880–92.

Sastry PS . Lipids of nervous tissue: Composition and metabolism. Prog Lipid Res 1985;24:69–176.

Martin RE Bazan NG . Changing fatty acid content of growth cone lipids prior to synaptogenesis. J Neurochem 1992;59:318–25.

Green P Glozman S Kamensky B Yavin E. Developmental changes in rat membrane lipids and fatty acids: The preferential prenatal accumulation of DHA. J Lipid Res 1999;40:960–6.

Jones CR Arai T Rapoport SI . Evidence for the involvement of docosahexanoic acid in cholinergic stimulated signal transduction art the synapse. Neurochem Res 1997;22:663–70.

Lauritzen L Hansen HS Jørgensen MH Michaelsen KF . The essentiality of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in relation to development and function of the brain and retina. Prog Lip Res 2001;40:1–94.

Martinez M. Abnormal profiles of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the brain, liver, kidney and retina of patients with peroxisomal disorders. Brain Res 1992;583:171–82.

Haggarty P Ashton J Joynson M Abramovich DR Page K. Effect of maternal poly-unsaturated fatty acid concentration on transport by the human placenta. Biol Neonate 1999;75:350–9.

Birch EE Hoffmann DR Uauy R Birch DG Prestidge C. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexanoic acid and arachidonic acid in in the diet of term infants. Pediatr Res 1998;44:201–9.

Neuringer M. Cerebral cortex docosahexanoic acid is lower in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants. Nutr Rev 1993;51:238–41.

Birch EE Garfield S Hoffmann DR Uauy R Birch DG . A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000;42:174–81.

Jamieson EC Farquarson J Logan RW Howatson AG Patrick WJ Weaver LT , and others. Infant cerebellar grey and white matter fatty acids in relation to age and diet. Lipids 1999;34:1065–71.

Salem N Ward GR . Are omega-3 fatty acids essential nutrients for animals? World Rev Nutr Diet 1993;72:128–47.

Chamberlain JG . Fatty acids in human brain phylogeny. Perspect Biol Med 1996;39:436–45.

Broadhurst CL Cunnane SC Crawford MA . Rift valley lake fish and shellfish provided brain-specific nutrition for early Homo. Br J Nutr 1998;79:3–21.

Mayes PA . Metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids. In: Murray RK Granner DK Mayes PA Rodwell VW , editors. Harper's biochemistry. 24th ed. London: Prentice Hall; 1996. p 236–44.

Haag M. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: Their cellular role and clinical applications (Part I). The Medicine Journal (SA) 2001;43:13–7.

Erasmus U. Fats that heal, fats that kill. 3rd ed. Burnaby (BC): Alive Books; 1993.

Marteinsdottir I Horrobin DF Stenfors C Theodorsson E Mathé AA . Changes in dietary fatty acids alter phospholipid fatty acid composition in selected regions of rat brain. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1998;22:1007–21.

Quoc KP Pascaud M. Effects of dietary γ-linolenic acid on the tissue phospholipid fatty acid composition and the synthesis of eicosanoids in rats. Ann Nutr Metab 1996;40:99–108.

Haag M. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: Their cellular role and clinical applications (Part II). The Medicine Journal (SA) 2002;44:30–4.

Simopoulos AP . Omega-3 Fatty acids and human health: Defining strategies for public policy. Lipids 2001;36 (Suppl):S83–S89.

Horrobin DF Bennett CN . Depression and bipolar disorder: Relationships to impaired fatty acid and phospholipid metabolism and to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, immunological abnormalities, cancer, aging and osteoporosis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1999;60:217–34.

Horrobin DF Bennett CN . New gene targets related to schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders: Enzymes, binding proteins and transport proteins involved in phospholipid and fatty acid metabolism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1999;60:141–67.

Van Rooyen JM Offermeier J Stahmer SD . Serotonin receptors. The Medicine Journal (SA) 1991;33:3–19.

Garcia-Sanz JA Vazquez-Prado J Villalobos-Molina R. Alpha-1-adrenoceptors: Subtypes, signaling, and roles in health and disease. Arch Med Res 1999;30:449–58.

Popoli M Brunello N Perez J Racagni G. Second messenger-regulated protein kinases in the brain: Their functional role and the action of antidepressant drugs. J Neurochem 2000;74:21–33.

Salem N Jr Litman B Kim H-Y Gawrisch K. Mechanism of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids 2001;9:945–59.

Murphy MG . Membrane fatty acids, lipid peroxidation and adenylate cyclase activity in cultured neural cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985;132:757–63.

Nicolas C Lacasa D Guidicelli Y Demarne Y Agli B Lecourtier MJ , and others. Dietary (omega-6) poly-unsaturated fatty acids affect β-receptor binding and adenylate cyclase activity in pig adipocyte plasma membranes. J Nutr 1991;121:1179–86.

Speizer LA Watson MJ Brunton LL . Differential effects of omega-3 fish oils on protein kinase activities in vitro. Am J Physiol 1991;261:E109–E114.

Irvine RF Letcher AJ Dawson RMC . Fatty acid stimulation of membrane phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis by brain phosphatidylinositol phosphodiesterase. Biochem J 1979;178:497–500.

McPhail LC Clayton CC Snyderman R. A potential second messenger role for unsaturated fatty acids: Activation of Ca2+-dependent protein kinase. Science 1984;224:622–5.

Lister MD Deems RA Watanabe Y Ulevitch RJ Dennis EA . Kinetic analysis of the Ca2+-dependent, membrane-bound macrophage phospholipase A2 and the effects of arachidonic acid. J Biol Chem 1988;263:7506–13.

Shukla SD Halenda SP . Phospholipase D in cell signalling and its relationship to phospholipase C. Life Sci 1991;48:851–66.

Downes CP Currie RA . Lipid signalling. Curr Biol 1998;8:R865–R867.

Vial D Piomelli D. Dopamine D2 receptors potentiate arachidonic acid release via activation of cytosolic, arachidonate-specific phospholipase A2. J Neurochem 1995;64;2765–72.

Berg KA Maayani S Clarke WP . 5-Hydroxytryptamine2C receptor activation inhibits 5-hydroxytryptamineIB-like receptor function via arachidonic acid metabolism. Mol Pharmacol 1996;5:1017–23.

Tence M Murphy N Cordier J Premont J Glowinski J. Synergistic effects of acetyl choline and glutamate on the release of arachidonic acid from cultured striatal neurons. J Neurochem 1995;64:1605–13.

Jones CR Arai T Bell JM Rapoport SI . Preferential in vivo incorporation of [3H] arachidonic acid from blood into rat brain synaptosomal fractions before and after cholinergic stimulation. J Neurochem 1996;67:822–9.

Piomelli D. Eicosanoids in synaptic transmission. Crit Rev Neurobiol 1994;8:65–83.

Smith WL . Prostanoid synthesis and mechanisms of action. Am J Physiol 1992;263:F181–F191.

Xiao YF Gomez AM Morgan JP Lederer WJ Leaf A. Suppression of l-type Ca2+ currents by polyunsaturated fatty acids in adult and neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:4182–7.

Wieland SJ Fletcher JE Gong QH . Differential modulation of a sodium conductance in skeletal muscle by intracellular and extracellular fatty acids. Am J Physiol 1992;263:C308–C312.

Piomelli D Wang JKT Sihra TS Nairn AC Czernik AJ Greengard P. Inhibition of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II by arachidonic acid and its metabolites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989;86:8550–4.

Kearns SD Haag M. The effect of omega-3 fatty acids on Ca-ATPase in rat cerebral cortex. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2002;67:303–8.

Delion S Chalon S Hérault J Guilloteau D Besnard JC Durand G. Chronic dietary α-linolenic acid deficiency alters dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission in rats. J Nutr 1994;124:2466–76.

Delion S Chalon S Guilloteau D Besnard JC Durand G. α-Linolenic acid deficiency alters age-related changes of dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission in the rat frontal cortex. J Neurochem 1996;66:1582–91.

Chalon S Delion-Vancassel S Belzung C Guilloteau D Leguisquet AM Besnard JC , and others Dietary fish oil affects monoaminergic neurotransmission and behaviour in rats. J Nutr 1998;128:2512–9.

Zimmer L Hembert S Durand G Breton P Guilloteau D Besnard JC , and others Chronic omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet-deficiency acts on dopamine metabolism in the rat frontal cortex: A microdialysis study. Neurosci Lett 1998;240:177–81.

Zimmer L Durand G Guilloteau D Chalon S. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and dopamine metabolism in the rat frontal cortex. Lipids 1999;34:S251.

De la Presa Owens S Innis SM . Docosahexaenioc and arachidonic acid prevent a decrease in dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmitters in frontal cortex caused by a linoleic and α-linolenic acid deficient diet in formula-fed piglets. J Nutr 1999;129:2088–93.

Yoshida S Yasuda A Kawazato H Sakai K Shimada T Takeshita M , and others. Synaptic vesicle ultrastructural changes in the rat hippocampus induced by a combination of α-linolenate deficiency and a learning task. J Neurochem 1997:68:1261–8.

Minami M Kimura S Endo T Hamaue N Hirafuji M Togashi H , and others. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid increases cerebral acetylcholine levels and improves passive avoidance performance in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997;58:1123–9.

Carlson SE . Growth and development of premature infants in relation to w3 and w6 fatty acid status. World Rev Nutr Diet 1990;75:63–9.

Carlson SE Werkman SH . A randomised trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexanoic acid for 2 months. Lipids 1996;31:85–90.

Carlson SE Tolley E. Effect of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:687–97.

Carlson SE . Lipid requirements of very low birth weight infants for optimal growth and development. In: Dobbing J , editor. Lipids, learning, and the brain: Fats in infant fomulas. Columbus (OH): Ross Laboratories; 1993. p 188–207.

Agostini C Trojan S Bellu R Riva E Giovannini M. Neurodevelopmental quotient of healthy term infants and feeding practice: The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pediatr Res 1995;38:262–6.

Hoffman DR Birch EE Birch DG Uauy R. Fatty acid profile of buccal cheek phospholipids as an index for dietary intake of docosahexanoic acid in preterm infants. Lipids 1999;34:337–42.

Birch E Hoffman D Uauy R Birch D Prestidge C. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexanoic acid and arachidonic acid in the diet of term infants. Pediatr Res 1998;44:201–9.

Willats P Forsyth JS DiModugno MK Varma S Colvin M. Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formula on problem solving at 10 months of age. Lancet 1998;352:688–91.

Slater A. Individual differences in infancy and later IQ. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1995;36:69–112.

Scott DT Janowsky JS Carroll RE Taylor JA Auestad N Monalto MB . Formula supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: Are there developmental benefits? Pediatrics 1998;102:59. (electronic publication).

Burgess JR Stevens L Zhang W Peck L. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:327S–330S.

Voigt RG Llorente AM Jensen CL Fraley JK Berretta MC Heird W. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexanoic acid supplementation in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Pediatr 2001;139:173–4.

Maes M Christophe A Bosmans E Lin A Neels H. In humans, serum polyunsaturated fatty acid levels predict the response of pro-inflammatory cytokines to psychological stress. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:910–20.

Horrobin DF Manku MS . Possible role of prostaglandin E1 in the affective disorders and metabolism. BMJ 1980;280:1363–6.

Hibbeln JR Salem N Jr. Dietary polyunsaturated fats and depression: When cholesterol alone doesn't satisfy. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:1–9.

Lavori PW Warshaw M Klerman G Mueller TI Leon A Rice J , and others. Secular trends in lifetime onset of MDD stratified by selected sociodemographic risk factors. J Psychiatr Res 1993;27:95–109.

Adams PB Lawson S Sanigorski A Sinclair AJ . Arachidonic to eicosapentanoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with symptoms of depression. Lipids 1996;31 (Suppl):S157–S161.

Edwards R Peet M Shay J Horrobin D. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. J Affect Disord 1998;48:149–55.

Maes M Smith RS . Fatty acids, cytokines and major depression. Biol Psychiatry 1998;43:313–4.

Maes M Christophe A Delanghe J Altamura C Neels H Meltzer HY . Lowered omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients. Psychiatry Res 1999;22:85:275–91.

Stoll AL Severus WE Freeman MP Rueter S Zboyan HA Diamond A , and others. Omega-3 Fatty acids in bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:401–12.

Ellis FR Sanders TAB . Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in endogenous depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:168–9.

Fehily AMA Bowey OAM Ellis FR Meade BW Dickerson JWT . Plasma and erythrocyte membrane long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in endogenous depression. Neurochem Int 1981;3:37–42.

Mellor J Laugharne J Peet M. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in schizophrenic patients. Hum Psychopharmacol 1996;11:39–46.

Peet M Mellor J. Double blind placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as an adjunct to neuroleptics. Schizophr Res 1998;29:160.

Yao JK Van Kammen DP Gurklis J. Red blood cell membrane dynamics in schizophrenia. III. Correlation of fatty acid abnormalities with clinical measures. Schizophr Res 1994;13:227–32.

Yao JK Leonard S Reddy RD . Membrane phospholipid abnormalities in postmortem brains from schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 2000;42:7–17.

Peet M Horrobin DF E-E Multicentre study group. A dose-ranging exploratory study of the effects of ethyl-eicosapentanoate in patients with persistent schizophrenic symptoms. J Psychiatr Res 2002;36;7–18.

Fenton WS Dickerson F Boronow J Hibbeln JR Knable M. A placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid (ethyl eicosapentanoic acid) supplementation for residual symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:2071–4.

Joy CB Mumby-Croft R Joy LA . Polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish or evening primrose oil) for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;2:1–28.

Swank RL Lerstad O Strom P Barker J. Multiple sclerosis in rural Norway: Its geographic and occupational incidence in relation to nutrition. N Engl J Med 1952;246:721–8.

Holman R Johnson S Kokmen E. Deficiencies of polyunsaturated fatty acids and replacement by non-essential fatty acids in plasma lipids in multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989;86:4720–4.

Gallai V Sarchielli V Trequattrini A Franceschini M Floridi A Firenzi C , and others. Cytokine secretion and eicosanoid production in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients undergoing dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids. J Neuroimmunol 1995;56:143–53.

Nordvik I Myhr KM Nyland H Bjerve KS . Effect of dietary advice and omega-3 supplementation in newly diagnosed MS patients. Acta Neurol Scand 2000;102:143–9.

Zhang SM Willett WC Hernán MA Olek MJ Ascherio A. Dietary fat in relation to risk of multiple sclerosis among two large cohorts of women. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:1056–106.

Horrobin DF . Loss of delta-6-desaturase activity as a key factor in aging. Med Hypotheses 1981;7:1211–20.

Maniongui C Blond JP Durand G Poisson JP Bezard J. Age-related changes in D6 and D5 desaturase activities in rat liver microsomes. Lipids 1993;28:291–7.

McGeer PL McGeer EG . The inflammatory response system of the brain: Implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Rev 1995;21:195–218.

Markesby WR . Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 1997;23:134–47.

Lonergan PE Martin DS Horrobin DF Lynch MA . Neuroprotective effect of eicosapentanoic acid in hippocampus of rats exposed to gamma-irradiation. J Biol Chem 2002;277:20804–11.

McGahon BM Martin DSD Horrobin DF Lynch MA . Age-related changes in synaptic function: Analysis of the effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids. Neuroscience 1999;94:305–14.

Yehuda S Rabinovitz S Carasso RL Mostofsky DI . Essential fatty acids preparation (SR-3) improves Alzheimer's patients' quality of life. Int J Neurosci 1996;87:141–9.

Puri BK Bydder GM Counsell SJ Corridan BJ Richardson AJ Hajnal JV , and others. MRI and neuropsychological improvement in Huntington disease following ethyl-EPA treatment. Neuroreport 2002;13:123–6.

Sanders TAB . Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in Europe. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(Suppl):176S–178S.