A Latent Class Analysis of Early Adolescent Peer and Dating Violence: Associations With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety

Abstract

Violence within peer and dating contexts is prevalent among early adolescents. Youth may be victims and/or aggressors and be involved in violence across multiple contexts, resulting in negative outcomes. This study identified patterns of perpetration and victimization for peer and dating violence, using a latent class analysis (LCA), and examined how different patterns of engaging in or experiencing violence among early adolescents were associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Participants included a sample of 508 racially and ethnically diverse youth (51% male) who had dated in the past 3 months. Youth were in the seventh grade within 37 schools and were primarily from economically disadvantaged communities across four sites in the United States. LCA identified three classes: (a) a low involvement in violence class, (b) a peer aggression and peer victimization class, and (c) a peer and dating violence class. Youth involved with multiple forms of violence displayed significantly higher levels of depressive and anxious symptoms than those with low involvement in violence. Study findings revealed the importance of understanding how peer and dating violence co-occur, and how different patterns of aggression and victimization were related to internalizing symptoms. Prevention efforts should address the intersection of victimization and perpetration in peer and dating contexts in potentially reducing internalizing symptoms among early adolescents.

Keywords

dating violence peer violence adolescence internalizing latent class analysis

Forming and maintaining peer relationships are a fundamental component of adolescent development. During the transition to adolescence, social processes within peer groups shift in terms of composition and norms around aggressive behaviors (Miller et al., 2013; Pepler et al., 2006), and adolescents begin to explore romantic relationships. Peers are both a driving and guiding force within these early adolescent relationships (Brown, 1999). Although peer relationships and early dating relationships are crucial developmental processes for youth in terms of social and emotional development, they also can be the context for violence.

Youth Violence in Peer and Dating Contexts

During these years of heightened peer influence in early adolescence, the prevalence of peer and dating violence also is high. For example, two recent studies of early adolescents illustrated that 75% of youth reported experiencing at least one act of peer victimization, and 49% of youth reported experiencing at least one act of dating violence victimization (Goncy, Sullivan, Farrell, Mehari, & Garthe, 2017; Kaynak, Lepore, Kliewer, & Jaggi, 2015). Each form (i.e., aggression/perpetration and victimization) and context (i.e., peer and dating) of violence is a significant public health concern, and these forms of violence are often interconnected (Wilkins, Tsao, Hertz, Davis, & Klevens, 2014). Youth may be victimized in both peer and dating contexts (Garthe, Sullivan, & McDaniel, 2017), perpetrate violence in multiple contexts (Foshee et al., 2016; Gorman-Smith, Tolan, Sheidow, & Henry, 2001), or aggression and victimization may co-occur (Sears & Byers, 2010).

Although research highlights the interconnections between multiple forms and contexts of violence, relatively few studies have attempted to identify clusters or classes of adolescents based on their experience with or perpetration of multiple forms of violence. Research that has been conducted has primarily focused on examining classes of youth involved in peer aggression and victimization (PAV), generally finding four classes of youth: uninvolved, aggressors, victims, and aggressive-victims (Bettencourt, Farrell, Liu, & Sullivan, 2013; Lovegrove, Henry, & Slater, 2012; Williford, Brisson, Bender, Jenson, & Forrest-Bank, 2011). These studies illustrated the heterogeneity of adolescents involved in different roles of peer violence. Other studies have found classes of youth involved in dating violence, bullying behaviors, and/or sexual harassment (Espelage & Holt, 2007; Goncy et al.,2017; Miller et al., 2013), prompting further research into better understanding classes of youth involved in multiple types of violence.

A few studies to date have focused specifically on identifying classes of adolescents involved in peer and/or dating violence. One study examined risk and protective factors in relation to preidentified clusters of peer and dating physical violence perpetration (Foshee et al., 2011), not including psychological forms of violence or victimization in either context. A second study conducted a cluster analysis on peer and dating violence perpetration and victimization, but did not assess predictors or outcomes associated with identified clusters (Bossarte, Simon, & Swahn, 2008). Finally, a third study conducted a latent class analysis (LCA) of peer and dating violence perpetration and victimization, finding three classes: youth involved in peer aggression, youth involved in PAV, and youth involved in multiple forms and contexts of violence (Whiteside et al., 2013). However, this study used a very specific sample (i.e., a sample of adolescents seeking urban emergency care who reported past-year alcohol use and aggression), making generalizability difficult. These studies also did not focus specifically on a sample of youth during early adolescence, a developmental period in which peer influence is heightened, particularly within initial dating relationships (Brown, 1999). The current study sought to address these gaps in the literature by examining patterns of peer and dating violence among early adolescents and seeing how these patterns of class membership may be associated with heightened symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Peer and Dating Violence (PDV): Associations With Internalizing Symptoms

Understanding how intersections between peer and dating violence are associated with rates of depressive and anxious symptomology is critical during early adolescence, particularly as the prevalence of these internalizing symptoms increases during middle and late childhood, and then accelerates during adolescence (Klein, Kujawa, Black, & Pennock, 2013). National surveys of adolescents found 18% to 29% of youth experienced elevated depressive symptoms (Rushton, Forcier, & Schectman, 2002), and one third of adolescents meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder (Merikangas et al., 2010). By the time youth reach mid- to late adolescence, prevalence rates of depression and anxiety symptomology are similar to adult rates, making early adolescence a critical time to better understand patterns of risk for depressive and anxious symptoms.

Youth who experience and perpetrate violence in peer contexts are at a greater risk for depressive and anxious symptoms (Reijntjes, Kamphuis, Prinzie, & Telch, 2010). The adverse effects of peer victimization may be intensified during the transition to adolescence, due to the new psychological and social challenges (Miller et al., 2013). A developmental victimology framework highlights that negative mental and physical health outcomes are exacerbated by multiple forms of victimization (Finkelhor, 1995; Holt & Espelage, 2003). Youth who perpetrate violence in peer and dating relationships also are at a heightened risk for internalizing problems (Foshee et al., 2016), although this literature is less documented. Empirical work suggests that dating violence victimization and perpetration is associated with greater odds of depressive symptomology (Exner-Cortens, Eckenrode, & Rothman, 2013). Similar to the literature on peer victimization, if an adolescent experiences or perpetrates multiple forms of violence, including dating violence, he or she is more disposed to poor mental health (Birkley & Eckhardt, 2015). However, research is necessary to examine depressive and anxious symptomology in classes of adolescents who experience or perpetrate multiple forms of violence within peer and/or dating contexts.

Considerations by Context

The current study also examined relations between peer and dating violence and internalizing symptoms among a sample of youth who were primarily of a racial or ethnic minority and from economically disadvantaged urban communities in the United States. Understanding the ecological and cultural context in which violence occurs is crucial to understanding the relation between violence and internalizing symptoms. For example, racial and ethnic minority youth who live in economically disadvantaged urban environments may be exposed to a greater number of risk factors and stressors, including exposure to community and interpersonal violence (Benson, Fox, DeMaris, & Van Wyk, 2003; Gorman-Smith, Tolan, & Henry, 2000). Living in urban areas of economic disadvantage can affect adolescent involvement in risk-related behaviors, poor educational outcomes, and negative mental health outcomes (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Romero, Richards, Harrison, Garbarino, & Mozley, 2015).

Furthermore, rates of peer and dating violence tend to be high among samples of youth from economically disadvantaged urban communities (Bettencourt & Farrell, 2013; Goldweber, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2013; Goncy et al., 2017; Wilson, Woods, Emerson, & Donenberg, 2012; Wincentak, Connolly, & Card, 2017). Research findings also suggest that rates of internalizing symptoms are elevated among youth from high-burden communities (Dupéré, Leventhal, & Vitaro, 2012; Kessler et al., 2012; Snedker & Herting, 2016). In the examination of the relations between violence and internalizing symptoms, it is important for researchers to consider the ecological and cultural context, particularly in thinking about tailoring violence prevention and mental health services to be contextually and culturally relevant. Therefore, our study added to the literature by examining relations between peer and/or dating violence and internalizing symptoms among a sample of racially and ethnically diverse youth from primarily economically disadvantaged urban environments.

The Current Study

As youth are adjusting to an array of social changes during early adolescence, violence in peer and dating contexts may not appear in isolation, and may increase an adolescents’ risk for depressive and anxious symptoms. However, the majority of literature exploring classes of youth involved in violence has not specifically examined classes of youth experiencing forms of both peer and dating violence perpetration and victimization in early adolescence. Nor has prior research linked these classes of youth to internalizing symptoms. Our study sought to address these limitations in the current literature. To date, only one study has examined latent classes of peer and dating violence victimization and perpetration in relation to negative outcomes, but the study’s generalizability was limited by its sample and did not focus on early adolescents (Whiteside et al., 2013). We sought to identify classes within a sample of early adolescents who were racially and ethnically diverse from economically disadvantaged communities across four sites in the United States. Sex and race/ethnicity also were included as predictors of these classes (Wincentak et al., 2017).

Therefore, the current study had several objectives, addressing important gaps in the existing literature. We conducted an LCA to examine groups of adolescents involved in peer and/or dating violence victimization and perpetration. This study uniquely examined these classes among a sample of early adolescents. The developmental stage of early adolescence is when peer influence is heightened, youth are in the formative stages of dating, and youth are at a heightened risk for internalizing symptoms resulting from peer and dating violence. Also, we focused on a sample of racially and ethnically diverse adolescents from economically disadvantaged communities who may be at a higher risk for violence and internalizing symptoms. The current study also examined the degree to which patterns of aggression and victimization in peer and dating contexts were associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Based on prior person-centered approaches that identified classes of youth displaying patterns of aggression and victimization in dating and/or peer contexts (e.g., Whiteside et al., 2013), we anticipated identifying classes of youth who (a) had little involvement in aggression and/or victimization across contexts and (b) were exposed to both aggression and victimization in peer and/or dating contexts. In addition, we hypothesized that youth involved with violence and/or victimization across peer and dating contexts would display higher levels of internalizing symptoms as compared with youth with little involvement in aggression and/or victimization, or those who experienced aggression and victimization in a single context.

Method

Procedure and Participants

Secondary data analyses were conducted using data from the Multisite Violence Prevention Project (MVPP; Henry, Farrell, & Multisite Violence Prevention Project, 2004). Data were from youth in 37 public schools (12 Chicago Schools serving Grades K-8; eight middle schools in Durham, North Carolina; eight middle schools in Richmond, Virginia; and nine middle schools in northeastern Georgia). In participating school districts, the average poverty and violent crime rates within these communities were higher than the national average (Henry et al., 2004). All study procedures were approved by institutional review boards at each of the participating universities. Parental permission and youth assent were collected from 76% of eligible students. Data were collected using a computer-assisted interview conducted on laptops in the school setting. Teachers reported on youth depression and anxiety symptoms, and they received a small stipend for each survey completed.

Youth in the MVPP were a part of a larger intervention study: Within each site, schools were randomly assigned to one of four intervention conditions: (a) a universal student intervention, (b) a selective intervention with group-based family intervention, (c) a combined intervention condition, and (d) a “business-as-usual” control condition. Interventions were designed to decrease the norms for and the use of violence and aggression (Henry et al., 2004). For the current study, only youth in the no-intervention control condition were included who were in the spring wave of seventh grade (N = 1,087). The current study focused on the intersection of peer and dating violence, so a subsample of youth who reported having a boyfriend or girlfriend in the past 3 months was examined (n = 508). Fifty-one percent of the sample was male; 46% of the youth self-identified as African American, 24% endorsed a Hispanic ethnicity, 17% were White, 9% were Multiracial, and 4% endorsed another racial/ethnic category.

Measures

Peer violence

The Problem Behavior Frequency Scale (Farrell, Sullivan, Goncy, & Le, 2016) was used to assess peer violence, with items encompassing physical aggression (e.g., “hit or slapped another kid” or “shoved or pushed another kid”) and relational aggression (e.g., “spread a false rumor about someone” or “left another kid out on purpose when it was time to do an activity”). The scale also assesses physical (e.g., “been hit by another kid” or “been pushed or shoved by another kid”) and relational (e.g., “had a kid say they won’t like you unless you do what he or she wanted you to do”) victimization. For peer aggression items, youth were asked, “In the last 30 days, how many times have you . . .?” and for the peer victimization items, youth were asked, “In the last 30 days, how many times has this happened to you?” Youth rated items on a frequency scale for peer aggression (10 items, α = .73) and victimization (10 items, α = .75). The items were coded as dichotomous (never or one or more times) for the current study.

Dating violence

An adapted Safe Dates aggression scale (Foshee et al., 1996) was used to assess dating violence and includes items encompassing physical (e.g., kicked, punched/hit) and psychological violence (e.g., doing something to make them jealous, saying things to hurt their feelings). The scale was modified to ask, “In the last 3 months, how often has a boyfriend or girlfriend done the following things to you?” to assess victimization, and “In the last 3 months, how often have you done the following things to a boyfriend or girlfriend?” to assess perpetration. The question was modified from asking about lifetime prevalence due to the transient nature of adolescent relationships. Participants then rated how frequently they experienced (i.e., victimization, 10 items, α = .86) and perpetrated these behaviors (10 items, α = .89). The items were coded as dichotomous (never or one or more times) for the current study.

Depression and anxiety symptoms

Symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed using the teacher-reported Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006). The BASC is a widely used and extensively validated assessment tool. Depression was assessed with nine items (e.g., “is sad,” α = .76) and anxiety was assessed with eight items (e.g., “worries about things that cannot be changed,” α = .75). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from never to almost always. Items were totaled so that higher scores represented higher levels of symptomology.

Data Analysis

Using Mplus 7.3 (Muthén & Muthén, 2015), we ran a three-step LCA (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2014) to identify a meaningful number of classes of adolescents with similar response patterns to items addressing peer and dating violence among a sample of adolescents in the seventh grade. First, we compared models with increasing numbers of classes using several statistical fit indices: the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC), the Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC), and the sample-size adjusted Bayesian Information Criteria (ABIC), with lower values indicating better fitting models and entropy (Tofighi & Enders, 2008). We reviewed the average latent class probabilities (ACPs) for most likely membership, as well as the potential theoretical contribution of each class. Finally, we used the adjusted Lo–Mendell–Rubin likelihood ratio test (LMR-LRT) to determine if adding an additional class significantly improved the model fit. As youth were nested within schools, we controlled for the nature of the data using the TYPE = COMPLEX command. We used the three-step LCA procedures to examine distal outcomes of these classes of adolescents (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2014). Covariates (e.g., sex and race/ethnicity) were understood as auxiliary variables, using the R3STEP command. The mean differences in depressive and anxious symptoms across the classes were examined using a Wald test.

Results

The prevalence rate of dating violence (i.e., endorsing at least one behavior) was 50% for victimization and 38% perpetration. Prevalence for specific behaviors of dating violence ranged from 4% to 25% for dating violence victimization and from 2% to 21% for dating violence perpetration items. The prevalence rate of peer violence (i.e., endorsing at least one behavior) was 83% for victimization and 91% for perpetration. Prevalence for specific behaviors of peer violence ranged from 9% to 72% for peer aggression and 8% to 54% for peer victimization items. For all youth, depressive symptom scores ranged from 0 to 18 (M = 2.05, SD = 2.66). Anxious symptom scores ranged from 0 to 19 (M = 4.35, SD = 3.49).

LCA

In the review of the fit indices, the three-class and four-class models provided the best model fit (see Table 1). The three-class solution was selected for further analyses, as the four-class model included a class that only consisted of eight youth, and the three-class model was similar to existing empirical support (Whiteside et al., 2013). As illustrated in Figure 1, these three classes were identified as youth who (a) had low probabilities of being involved in peer violence or dating violence (Low Violence [LV], n = 203, 40%), (b) were involved in peer aggression and also experienced peer victimization (PAV, n = 208, 41%), and (c) were involved in peer and dating violence victimization and perpetration (PDV, n = 97, 19%). Youth in the LV class had low probabilities of endorsing peer (M = 0.15) or dating violence (M = 0.03) items. Youth in the PAV class indicated high item-response probability on the PAV items (M = 0.48). Finally, youth in the PDV class indicated high item-response probability on all peer and dating violence items (M = 0.50).

Table 1.

Model Fit Statistics for Latent Class Models Specifying One to Four Classes.

Fit Indices	Number of Classes
Fit Indices	1	2	3	4
Log likelihood	−9,150.03	−8,144.63	−7,908.80	−7,718.81
N of free parameters	43	87	131	175
AIC	18,386.06	16,463.27	16,079.60	15,787.62
BIC	18,566.33	16,828.00	16,628.80	16,521.28
ABIC	18,429.85	16,554.87	16,213.01	15,965.84
LMR-LRT	—	2,003.43, p = .03	469.95, p = .75	378.45, p = .77
ACPs	—	.97-.98	.93-.95	.92-.97

Note. AIC = Akaike information criteria; BIC = Bayesian information criteria; ABIC = sample size adjusted BIC; LMR-LRT = Lo–Mendell–Rubin Likelihood Ratio Test; ACPs = average latent class probabilities for most likely latent class membership.

Figure 1.

Item probabilities of endorsing peer and dating violence for each latent class.

Latent Class Predictors and Outcomes

Sex and race/ethnicity were examined as predictors or covariates in the three-class model; however, neither covariate predicted class membership. Next, depressive and anxious symptoms were included in the model as outcomes of the classes (see Figure 2). For depressive symptoms, the overall test was significant, χ² = 30.12, p < .001, suggesting differences in depressive symptoms by class membership. Youth in the PAV (M = 2.21, SE = 0.38) and PDV (M = 3.46, SE = 0.38) classes had significantly higher scores of depressive symptoms compared with the LV (M = 1.30, SE = 0.23) class. Depression scores also were significantly higher for the PDV class compared with the PAV class. For anxiety symptoms, there was only one significant difference between classes, χ² = 4.93, p < .05; youth in the PDV class (M = 4.98, SE = 0.54) had significantly higher rates of anxiety symptoms compared with the LV (M = 3.84, SE = 0.35) class.

Figure 2.

Mean level of depressive and anxious symptoms for each latent class.

Discussion

The current study examined classes of early adolescents according to their experiences and involvement in peer and dating violence. Three classes were found in the current study, including a group of adolescents (a) involved in low levels of violence, (b) involved in PAV, and (c) involved in both peer and dating violence victimization and perpetration. These three classes suggest that contexts and forms of violence are interconnected for some early adolescents. Understanding these interconnections between types and contexts of violence are crucial for informing preventive interventions among middle school youth. This finding is particularly relevant as youth involved in multiple contexts or forms of violence showed higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, compared with the youth who showed low levels of involvement in peer violence. Therefore, the current study contributed to the relatively scarce literature using LCAs to identify classes of youth involved in peer and/or dating violence victimization and perpetration among a racially and ethnically diverse sample of early adolescents.

The three-class model in the current study is similar to the findings by Whiteside and colleagues (2013) who found three classes in their sample of adolescents, ages 14 to 18, who engaged in aggressive behavior and alcohol use. For example, two of the classes (i.e., involvement in PAV, and involvement in peer and dating violence) were found in both our study and by Whiteside and colleagues. However, Whiteside and colleagues identified a third class of youth with high levels of peer aggression, whereas we found a third class with little exposure to or involvement with violence. This difference in the third class may be attributed to their specific sample (e.g., aggressive adolescents who reported past-year alcohol use). Our finding is more in line with other researchers who have typically found an uninvolved or “low violence” class of adolescents (Bettencourt et al., 2013; Bossarte et al., 2008; Williford et al., 2011). We also did not find a class of youth with only exposure to dating violence, but our sample of early adolescents may not be involved in serious dyadic romantic relationships at this developmental stage. A class with just dating violence behaviors may emerge in studies with older adolescents who are more involved in longer term dyadic relationships and less influenced by peers (Bossarte et al., 2008; Brown, 1999). The current study focused on seventh-grade youth who are still heavily influenced by peers and thus may not be represented by a class comprising only of dating violence exposure.

Previous literature found that girls tend to experience higher levels of peer victimization and dating violence (Goncy et al., 2017; Wincentak et al., 2017). However, we found that sex did not predict class membership. In other words, girls and boys had similar odds of being in each of these classes. During early adolescence, peer groups and romantic relationships tend to shift from highly segregated groups to mixed-sex groups (Brown, 1999). Girls and boys may become more similar in their behaviors in peer and romantic relationships, and both sexes may use aggression to enhance social status (Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004). However, this finding needs to be explored with longitudinal designs to see if and/or when sex and other demographic differences may predict membership in classes of peer and dating violence.

Consistent with our hypothesis, the current study found that classes of youth involved in (a) PAV, and (b) peer and dating violence, displayed greater levels of internalizing symptoms in comparison with the class of adolescents who were involved in low levels of violence. Past research has highlighted that involvement in peer and dating violence may increase the likelihood of depressive and anxious symptoms among youth. However, to our knowledge, no existing research had examined classes of adolescents involved in peer and/or dating violence in relation to these internalizing symptoms. The current study found that the co-occurrence of violent relationships (e.g., peer aggression and victimization, peer and dating violence) substantially increased the risk of depressive symptoms for early adolescents. As anticipated, youth involved in peer and dating violence were at the highest risk for depression, showing significantly higher rates of depressive symptoms in comparison with the two other classes. Furthermore, youth in the peer and dating violence class had higher levels of anxiety symptoms than the youth in the low peer violence class. In other words, experiencing and perpetrating violence in peer contexts amplified an adolescent’s risk for internalizing symptoms; experiencing and perpetrating violence in peer and dating contexts further amplified this risk.

Early adolescence is a developmental period where youth are at a higher risk for depressive and anxious symptoms and for negative peer and romantic relationships. In addition, youth living in economically disadvantaged urban communities also are at a higher risk for violence and internalizing symptoms. Prevention programs should target these formative years and contexts in hopes of reducing the co-occurrence of victimization and perpetration in peer and dating relationships. Developing healthy peer and romantic relationships are crucial to reducing internalizing symptoms in early adolescents who may be at a greater risk for violence and negative mental health outcomes as a consequence of where they live.

It is imperative that researchers continue to examine what relational factors contribute to internalizing symptoms in adolescents, especially as adolescents who have high levels of internalizing symptoms are more likely to have poor quality friendships (Oppenheimer & Hankin, 2011) or have difficulty negotiating subsequent interpersonal relations (Hammen, Rudolph, & Abaied, 2014; Siegel, la Greca, & Harrison, 2009). Future disruptions in romantic relationships may be a consequence of internalizing symptoms, and these symptoms may bias an adolescent’s ability to process stimuli in social situations (Higa-McMillan, Francis, & Chorpita, 2014; Jacobs, Reinecke, Gollan, & Kane, 2008). Thus, longitudinal research is necessary to examine bidirectional relations between internalizing symptoms, peer violence, and dating violence. In addition, future research would benefit from examining risk and protective factors that distinguish class membership.

Limitations

The current study is not without limitations. Although this is the first study to our knowledge to examine the co-occurrence of peer and dating violence among a sample of early adolescents using LCAs, findings need to be replicated and extended longitudinally. The current study was cross-sectional, preventing causal interpretations, and future work may wish to examine trajectories and transitions of peer and dating violence classes throughout middle and high school. For example, some work suggests that classes of adolescents involved in youth violence may change throughout adolescence (Miller et al., 2013). Also, teacher-report of students’ depressive and anxious symptoms may have limited the reliability of these internalizing symptoms due to reporter constraints (i.e., some behaviors are not observable). Finally, although our sample was racially and ethnically diverse, it primarily consisted of early adolescents attending schools in urban locations from economically disadvantaged communities; it is imperative to examine classes among youth in more geographically and economically diverse settings to better understand the various classes of adolescents involved in youth violence.

Implications

The findings have strong implications for developing youth violence preventive interventions. National organizations have recently pushed initiatives to develop and strengthen programs that address multiple forms of youth violence (Wilkins et al., 2014). One such example, the Fourth R, aims to reduce peer and dating violence, unsafe sexual behavior, and substance misuse, in addition to strengthening protective factors (e.g., social and emotional competencies) and improving communication and relationship skills (Wolfe et al., 2009). The current study highlights the importance of these types of programs as peer and dating violence can co-occur and result in negative internalizing outcomes.

In addition, the current study contributes to the literature by identifying classes of adolescents involved in peer and/or dating violence who are racially and ethnically diverse from primarily economically disadvantaged communities. Youth living in these environments may be more vulnerable to exposure to violence across peer and dating contexts and mental health symptoms, which was exemplified in the current study. We found high prevalence rates of dating and peer violence, and higher frequencies of these behaviors were associated with higher levels of internalizing symptoms. These results highlight the need for more programming and policy efforts to support high-burden communities and to continue evaluating the effectiveness of violence prevention and mental health programs among racially and ethnically diverse adolescents from economically disadvantaged communities.

Finally, the current study examined classes of youth involved in peer and dating violence during early adolescence, a developmental period of heightened peer influence and risk for problematic behaviors. Preventive interventions should consider implementing programs during the middle school years to foster healthy peer relationships, romantic relationships, and norms around violence. Targeting the reduction of peer and dating violence victimization and perpetration in middle school could not only prevent the future co-occurrence of violence and revictimization, but it also could reduce the negative ramifications associated with youth violence.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the Multisite Violence Prevention Project for permission to use the data for this study. Investigators from each site are as follows (changes in affiliations in parentheses): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA: Thomas R. Simon, Robin M. Ikeda, Emilie Smith (University of Georgia), Le’Roy E. Reese (Morehouse University); Duke University, Durham, NC: David L. Rabiner, Shari Miller (Research Triangle Institute), Donna-Marie Winn (University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill), Kenneth A. Dodge, Steven R. Asher; University of Georgia, Athens, GA: Arthur M. Horne, Pamela Orpinas, Roy Martin, William H. Quinn (Clemson University); University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL: Patrick H. Tolan (University of Virginia), Deborah Gorman-Smith, David B. Henry, Franklin N. Cosey-Gay, Michael Schoeny (University of Chicago); Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA: Albert D. Farrell, Aleta L. Meyer (Administration for Children and Families, Washington, DC), Terri N. Sullivan, Kevin W. Allison.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Rachel C. Garthe, PhD, is a research scientist in the School of Social Service Administration at the University of Chicago. Her research focuses on better understanding the etiology and consequences associated with youth violence exposure, peer-based aggression, and dating violence. She also researches the development, implementation, and evaluation of youth violence preventive interventions.

Terri N. Sullivan, PhD, is a professor of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Her major research interests include dating and peer relationships in adolescence, youth violence prevention, and adolescent social and emotional development.

Kathryn L. Behrhorst, MS, is a clinical psychology graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. She received her Master of Science in Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University. Her research interests include adolescent aggression and victimization, interpersonal school climate, and peer relationships.

References

Asparouhov

Muthén

(2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling, 21, 329–341. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915181

Benson

M. L.

Fox

G. L.

DeMaris

Van Wyk

(2003). Neighborhood disadvantage, individual economic distress and violence against women in intimate relationships. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 207–235. doi:10.1023/A:1024930208331

Bettencourt

Farrell

(2013). Stability and change in patterns of peer victimization and aggression during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42, 429–441. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.738455

Bettencourt

Farrell

Liu

Sullivan

(2013). Stability and change in patterns of peer victimization and aggression during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42, 429–441. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.738455

Birkley

E. L.

Eckhardt

C. I.

(2015). Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 40–56. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002

Bossarte

R. M.

Simon

T. R.

Swahn

M. H.

(2008). Clustering of adolescent dating violence, peer violence, and suicidal behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 815–833. doi:10.1177/0886260507313950

Brown

B. B.

(1999). “You’re going out with who?” Peer group influences on adolescent romantic relationships. In Furman

Brown

B. B.

Feiring

Furman

Brown

B. B.

Feiring

(Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 291–329). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316182185.013

Cillessen

A. H. N.

Mayeux

(2004). From censure to reinforcement: Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status. Child Development, 1, 147–163. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00660.x

Dupéré

Leventhal

Vitaro

(2012). Neighborhood processes, self-efficacy, and adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53, 183–198. doi:10.1177/002214651244267

10.

Espelage

D. L.

Holt

M. K.

(2007). Dating violence & sexual harassment across the bully-victim continuum among middle and high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 799–811. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9109-7

11.

Exner-Cortens

Eckenrode

Rothman

(2013). Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics, 131, 71–78. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1029

12.

Farrell

A. D.

Sullivan

T. N.

Goncy

E. A.

A. H.

(2016). Assessment of adolescents’ victimization, aggression, and problem behaviors: Evaluation of the Problem Behavior Frequency Scale. Psychological Assessment, 28, 702–714. doi:10.1037/pas0000225

13.

Finkelhor

(1995). The victimization of children: A developmental perspective. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 177–193. doi:10.1037/h0079618

14.

Foshee

V. A.

Gottfredson

N. C.

Reyes

H. M.

Chen

M. S.

David-Ferdon

Latzman

N. E.

Ennett

S. T.

(2016). Developmental outcomes of using physical violence against dates and peers. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58, 665–671. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.03.002

15.

Foshee

V. A.

Linder

G. F.

Bauman

K. E.

Langwick

S. A.

Arriaga

X. B.

Heath

J. L.

Bangdiwala

(1996). The Safe Dates Project: Theoretical basis, evaluation design, and selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12(Suppl. 5), 39–47.

16.

Foshee

V. A.

Reyes

H. M.

Ennett

S. T.

Suchindran

Mathias

J. P.

Karriker-Jaffe

K. J.

Benefield

T. S.

(2011). Risk and protective factors distinguishing profiles of adolescent peer and dating violence perpetration. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 344–350. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.07.030

17.

Garthe

R. C.

Sullivan

T. N.

McDaniel

M. A.

(2017). A meta-analytic review of peer risk factors and adolescent dating violence. Psychology of Violence, 7, 45–57. doi:10.1037/vio0000040

18.

Goldweber

Waasdorp

T. E.

Bradshaw

C. P.

(2013). Examining the link between forms of bullying behaviors and perceptions of safety and belonging among secondary school students. Journal of School Psychology, 51, 469–485. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2013.04.004

19.

Goncy

E. A.

Sullivan

T. N.

Farrell

A. D.

Mehari

K. R.

Garthe

R. C.

(2017). Identification of patterns of dating aggression and victimization among urban early adolescents and their relations to mental health symptoms. Psychology of Violence, 7, 58–68. doi:10.1037/vio0000039

20.

Gorman-Smith

Tolan

P. H.

Henry

(2000). A developmental-ecological model of the relation of family functioning to patterns of delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 169–198. doi:10.1023/A:1007564505850

21.

Gorman-Smith

Tolan

P. H.

Sheidow

A. J.

Henry

D. B.

(2001). Partner violence and street violence among urban adolescents: Do the same family factors relate? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 273–295. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00013

22.

Hammen

C. L.

Rudolph

K. D.

Abaied

J. L.

(2014). Child and adolescent depression. In Mash

E. J.

Barkley

R. A.

Mash

E. J.

Barkley

R. A.

(Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 225–263). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

23.

Henry

Farrell

, & Multisite Violence Prevention Project. (2004). The study designed by a committee: Design of the Multisite Violence Prevention Project. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 26, 12–19. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2003.09.027

24.

Higa-McMillan

C. K.

Francis

S. E.

Chorpita

B. F.

(2014). Anxiety disorders. In Mash

E. J.

Barkley

R. A.

Mash

E. J.

Barkley

R. A.

(Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 345–428). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

25.

Holt

M. K.

Espelage

D. L.

(2003). A cluster analytic investigation of victimization among high school students: Are profiles differentially associated with psychological symptoms and school belonging? In Elias

M. J.

Zins

J. E.

(Eds.), Bullying, peer harassment, and victimization in the schools: The next generation of prevention (pp. 81–98). New York, NY: Haworth Press.

26.

Jacobs

R. H.

Reinecke

M. A.

Gollan

J. K.

Kane

(2008). Empirical evidence of cognitive vulnerability for depression among children and adolescents: A cognitive science and developmental perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 759–782. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.006

27.

Kaynak

Ö.

Lepore

S. J.

Kliewer

Jaggi

(2015). Peer victimization and subsequent disruptive behavior in school: The protective functions of anger regulation coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.012

28.

Kessler

R. C.

Avenevoli

Costello

Katholiki

Green

J. G.

Gruber

M. J.

. . . Merikangas

K. R.

(2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 372–380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160

29.

Klein

D. N.

Kujawa

Black

S. R.

Pennock

A. T.

(2013). Depressive disorders. In Beauchaine

T. P.

Hinshaw

S. P.

(Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 543–575). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

30.

Leventhal

Brooks-Gunn

(2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309–337. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.126.2.309

31.

Lovegrove

P. J.

Henry

K. L.

Slater

M. D.

(2012). Examination of the predictors of latent class typologies of bullying involvement among middle school students. Journal of School Violence, 11, 75–93. doi:10.1080/15388220.2011.631447

32.

Merikangas

K. R.

Jian-ping

Burstein

Swanson

S. A.

Avenevoli

Lihong

. . . Swendsen

(2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989.

33.

Miller

Williams

Cutbush

Gibbs

Clinton-Sherrod

Jones

(2013). Dating violence, bullying, and sexual harassment: Longitudinal profiles and transitions over time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 607–618. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9914-8

34.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

B. O.

(2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.

35.

Oppenheimer

C. W.

Hankin

B. L.

(2011). Relationship quality and depressive symptoms among adolescents: A short-term multiwave investigation of longitudinal, reciprocal associations. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 486–493. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.563462

36.

Pepler

D. J.

Craig

W. M.

Connolly

J. A.

Yuile

McMaster

Jiang

(2006). A developmental perspective on bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 376–384. doi:10.1002/ab.20136

37.

Reijntjes

Kamphuis

J. H.

Prinzie

Telch

M. J.

(2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 244–252. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009

38.

Reynolds

C. R.

Kamphaus

R. W.

(2010). Behavior assessment system for children manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

39.

Romero

Richards

M. H.

Harrison

P. R.

Garbarino

Mozley

(2015). The role of neighborhood in the development of aggression in urban African American youth: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56, 156–169. doi:10.1007/s10464-015-9739-6

40.

Rushton

J. L.

Forcier

Schectman

R. M.

(2002). Epidemiology of depressive symptoms in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 199–205. doi:10.1097/00004583-200202000-00014

41.

Sears

H. A.

Byers

E. S.

(2010). Adolescent girls’ and boys’ experiences of psychologically, physically, and sexually aggressive behaviors in their dating relationships: Co-occurrence and emotional reaction. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19, 517–539. doi:10.1080/10926771.2010.495035

42.

Siegel

R. S.

la Greca

A. M.

Harrison

H. M.

(2009). Peer victimization and social anxiety in adolescents: Prospective and reciprocal relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1096–1109. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9392-1

43.

Snedker

K. A.

Herting

J. R.

(2016). Adolescent mental health: Neighborhood stress and emotional distress. Youth & Society, 48, 695–719. doi:10.1177/0044118X13512335

44.

Tofighi

Enders

C. K.

(2008). Identifying the correct number of classes in growth mixture models. In Hancock

G. R.

(Ed.), Mixture models in latent variable research (pp. 317–341). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

45.

Whiteside

Ranney

Chermack

Zimmerman

Cunningham

Walton

(2013). The overlap of youth violence among aggressive adolescents with past-year alcohol use—A latent class analysis: Aggression and victimization in peer and dating violence in an inner city emergency department sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74, 125–135. doi:10.15288/jsad.2013.74.125

46.

Wilkins

Tsao

Hertz

Davis

Klevens

(2014). Connecting the dots: An overview of the links among multiple forms of violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.

47.

Williford

A. P.

Brisson

Bender

K. A.

Jenson

J. M.

Forrest-Bank

(2011). Patterns of aggressive behavior and peer victimization from childhood to early adolescence: A latent class analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 644–655. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9583-9

48.

Wilson

H. W.

Woods

B. A.

Emerson

Donenberg

G. R.

(2012). Patterns of violence exposure and sexual risk in low-income urban African American girls. Psychology of Violence, 2, 194–207. doi:10.1037/a0027265

49.

Wincentak

Connolly

Card

(2017). Teen dating violence: A meta-analytic review of prevalence rates. Psychology of Violence, 7, 224–241. doi:10.1037/a0040194

50.

Wolfe

D. A.

Crooks

C. V.

Jaffe

P. G.

Chiodo

Hughes

Ellis

. . . Donner

(2009). A universal school-based program to prevent adolescent dating violence: A cluster randomized trial. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 163, 693–699. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.69