Development of the Japanese Version of the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language Scale and Comparison Between Rape Myth Acceptance in Japan and the U.S.
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online April, 2025
Development of the Japanese Version of the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language Scale and Comparison Between Rape Myth Acceptance in Japan and the U.S.
Rape myth acceptance (RMA) is the acceptance of false beliefs, stereotypes, and statements about rape victims, perpetrators, and the act itself. RMA positively predicts shame felt by victims and negatively predicts reports of sexual victimization. Knowledge about sexual violence changes over time; accordingly, psychometric scales measuring RMA should be updated. Hahnel-Peeters and Goetz developed the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language (REAL) scale by updating the Illinois RMA Scale—a major instrument used in the United States. However, the REAL scale is not available in Japanese. Therefore, we developed and validated a Japanese version of the REAL scale, evaluated RMA in Japanese individuals (N = 1,000), and compared the Japanese participants’ RMA levels with the mean participant scores from Hahnel-Peeters and Goetz. In collaboration with one of the original authors, the Japanese version was developed through a back-translation process and administered to 1,000 men and women aged between 18 and 65; exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on the data collected. The confirmatory factor analysis showed that the Japanese version moderately fitted the 4-factor structure of the original REAL scale. However, a 2-factor form obtained in the exploratory factor analysis best fit the data. Consistent with the original version, the Japanese version showed higher RMA in men than in women. The young generation (18–29 years old) self-reported higher RMA than other generations. Japan’s RMA was significantly higher than that of the U.S. sample. The Japanese version of the REAL scale can be used in future studies to assess RMA in Japanese individuals and develop suitable educational programs to reduce RMA.
AhrensC. E.StansellJ.JenningsA. (2010). To tell or not to tell: The impact of disclosure on sexual assault survivors’ recovery. Violence and Victims, 25(5), 631–648. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.5.631
2.
AngeloneD. J.CantorN.MarcantonioT.JoppaM. (2021). Does sexism mediate the gender and rape myth acceptance relationship?Violence Against Women, 27(6–7), 748–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220913632
3.
AronowitzT.LambertC. A.DavidoffS. (2012). The role of rape myth acceptance in the social norms regarding sexual behavior among college students. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 29(3), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370016.2012.697852
4.
BagasraA.Mc LetchieA.Laufersweiler-DwyerD. (2023). Rape myth acceptance among students attending a historically black college (HBCU): Implications for intervention design. Journal of American College Health, 71(2), 528–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1898402
5.
Baldwin-WhiteA.Elias-LambertN. (2016). Rape myth acceptance among social work students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(7), 702–720. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2016.1190950
6.
BarnettM. D.SligarK. B.WangC. D. C. (2018). Religious affiliation, religiosity, gender, and rape myth acceptance: Feminist theory and rape culture. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(8), 1219–1235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516665110
7.
BeshersS.DiVitaM. (2021). Changes in rape myth acceptance among undergraduates: 2010 to 2017. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(19–20), 9371–9392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519867153
8.
BhogalM. S.CorbettS. (2016). The influence of aggressiveness on rape-myth acceptance among university students. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 23(5), 709–715. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1142931
ByrneC. A.PetriJ. M.OhJ. K. (2021). Changes in female rape myth acceptance among college students: A 20-year perspective. Sex Roles, 85(9–10), 542–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01231-8
12.
CarrollM. H.RosensteinJ. E.FoubertJ. D.ClarkM. D.KorenmanL. M. (2016). Rape myth acceptance: A comparison of military service academy and civilian fraternity and sorority students. Military Psychology, 28(5), 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000113
13.
ChonD. S.CliffordJ. E. (2021). Cross-national examination of the relationship between gender equality and female homicide and rape victimization. Violence Against Women, 27(10), 1796–1819. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220954283
14.
ConstantinouA. G.ButoracK. (2023). Rape myth acceptance among Croatian and Cypriot police officers. Criminology & Criminal Justice. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958231160251
DussichJ. P. J. (2001). Decisions not to report sexual assault: A comparative study among women living in Japan who are Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and English-speaking. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(3), 278–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X01453002
17.
FáveroM.Del CampoA.FariaS.MoreiraD.RibeiroF.Sousa-GomesV. (2022). Rape myth acceptance of police officers in Portugal. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1–2), 659–680. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520916282
18.
GekoskiA.MasseyK.AllenK.FerreiraJ.DaltonC. T.HorvathM.DaviesK. (2024). ‘A lot of the time it’s dealing with victims who don’t want to know, it’s all made up, or they’ve got mental health’: Rape myths in a large English police force. International Review of Victimology, 30(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580221142891
19.
Hahnel-PeetersR. K.GoetzA. T. (2022). Development and validation of the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 186, 111359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111359
20.
HockettJ. M.SmithS. J.KlausingC. D.SaucierD. A. (2016). Rape myth consistency and gender differences in perceiving rape victims: A meta-analysis. Violence Against Women, 22(2), 139–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215607359
21.
JohnsonI. D.LewisR. (2023). Victim-survivors’ prioritization of reasons for non-reporting adult sexual assaults to law enforcement. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3–4), 4293–4316. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221114146
22.
JonesJ. S.AlexanderC.WynnB. N.RossmanL.DunnuckC. (2009). Why women don’t report sexual assault to the police: The influence of psychosocial variables and traumatic injury. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 36(4), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.10.077
KellyL.LovettJ.ReganL. (2005). A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases. London Metropolitan University.
25.
KennedyD. B.WitkowskiM. J. (2000). False allegations of rape revisited: A replication of the Kanin study. Journal of Security Administration, 23(1), 41–46.
26.
KimB.SantiagoH. (2020). Rape myth acceptance among prospective criminal justice professionals. Women & Criminal Justice, 30(6), 462–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2019.1664969
27.
KlementK. R.SagarinB. J.SkowronskiJ. J. (2019). Accusers lie and other myths: Rape myth acceptance predicts judgments made about accusers and accused perpetrators in a rape case. Sex Roles, 81(1–2), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0950-4
28.
LambertE. G.PasupuletiS.JiangS. H.JaishankarK.BhimarasettyJ. V. (2012). Comparing and contrasting the formal and informal crime control views of Indian and U.S. college students: A preliminary study. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56(8), 1239–1257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11421129
29.
LathanE. C.Koon-MagninS.SelwynC. N.IsaakH.Langhinrichsen-RohlingJ. (2023). Rape myth acceptance and other barriers to formally reporting sexual assault among college students with and without sexual assault histories. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(9–10), 6773–6797. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221137703
30.
LeMaireK. L.OswaldD. L.RussellB. L. (2016). Labeling sexual victimization experiences: The role of sexism, rape myth acceptance, and tolerance for sexual harassment. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 332–346. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00148
ŁyśA. E.Bargiel-MatusiewiczK.KrasuskiT.StudzińskaA. (2023). Psychometric properties of the polish updated Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Current Psychology, 42(1), 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01249-3
33.
MartiniM.TartagliaS.De PiccoliN. (2022). Assessing rape myth acceptance: A contribution to Italian validation of the measure for assessing subtle rape myth (SRMA-IT). Sexual Abuse, 34(4), 375–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211028158
34.
McMahonS. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American College Health, 59(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.483715
35.
McMahonS.FarmerG. L. (2011). An updated measure for assessing subtle rape myths. Social Work Research, 35(2), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/35.2.71
MurphyA.HineB. (2019). Investigating the demographic and attitudinal predictors of rape myth acceptance in U.K. police officers: Developing an evidence-base for training and professional development. Psychology, Crime and Law, 25(1), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2018.1503663
38.
NyúlB.KendeA. (2023). Rape myth acceptance as a relevant psychological construct in a gender-unequal context: The Hungarian adaptation of the updated Illinois rape myths acceptance scale. Current Psychology, 42(4), 3098–3111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01631-9
39.
OesterleD. W.OrchowskiL. M.BerkowitzA. D. (2023). Rape myth acceptance and sexual aggression among college men: Examining perceived peer approval as a moderating risk factor. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 32(10), 1428–1446. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2023.2177572
OhE.NevilleH. (2004). Development and validation of the Korean Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 32(2), 301–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003261351
42.
O’NealE. N.SpohnC.TellisK.WhiteC. (2014). The truth behind the lies: The complex motivations for false allegations of sexual assault. Women & Criminal Justice, 24(4), 324–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2014.890161
43.
ParrattK. A.PinaA. (2017). From “real rape” to real justice: A systematic review of police officers’ rape myth beliefs. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.03.005
44.
PayneD. L.LonswayK. A.FitzgeraldL. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33(1), 27–68. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2238
PrinaF.Schatz-StevensJ. N. (2020). Sexism and rape myth acceptance: The impact of culture, education, and religiosity. Psychological Reports, 123(3), 929–951. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294119826896
ReddyL. N.CampbellC. M.MorczekA. L. (2022). Exploring the impact of informal rape myth education in a nonstudent sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(3–4), NP1298–NP1321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520927496
49.
ReichC. M.AndersonG. D.MaclinR. (2022). Why I didn’t report: Reasons for not reporting sexual violence as stated on Twitter. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 31(4), 478–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2021.1912873
50.
RichK.SeffrinP. M.McNicholsE. (2021). College students’ responses to their sexually assaulted friends: Impact of rape myth acceptance, prior victimization, and social relationships. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(1), 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01842-4
51.
RussellK. J.HandC. J. (2017). Rape myth acceptance, victim blame attribution and just world beliefs: A rapid evidence assessment. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 37, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.10.008
52.
SmithT. W.DavernM.FreeseJ.MorganS. (2018). Data accessed from the GSS Data Explorer website. General social surveys, 1972–2018 [machine-readable data file]. https://gssdataexplorer.norc.org
StephensT.KamimuraA.YamawakiN.BhattacharyaH.MoW.BirkholzR.MakomenawA.OlsonL. M. (2016). Rape myth acceptance among college students in the United States, Japan, and India. Sage Open, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016675015
55.
TrottierD.BenbouricheM.LeBlancC.BonnevilleV. (2020). French validation of the revised Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (FR-IRMA). Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science-Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 52(2), 171–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000176
56.
XueJ.FangG.HuangH.CuiN.RhodesK. V.GellesR. (2019). Rape myths and the cross-cultural adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(7), 1428–1460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651315
57.
XueJ.LinK. (2022). Chinese university students’ attitudes toward rape myth acceptance: The role of gender, sexual stereotypes, and adversarial sexual beliefs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(5–6), 2467–2486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520938507
58.
YappE. J.QuayleE. (2018). A systematic review of the association between rape myth acceptance and male-on-female sexual violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 41, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.002
59.
YokoyamaM. (1995). Analysis of prostitution in Japan. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 19(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.1995.9678536
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
