Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

Abstract

Objective:

To synthesize evidence from qualitative studies relating to adolescent girls’ perceptions of physical activity participation. The protocol for this review is registered with PROSPERO (ID no. CRD42017054944).

Data Source:

PubMed, Sports Discus, Academic Search Complete, and Education Resources Information Centre.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:

Studies reporting qualitative data that explored the views/opinions/perceptions of adolescent girls (>12 and <18 years old) published between 2001 and 2016 were included. Studies not in English, those focusing on school physical education or specific sports, and those including special populations were excluded.

Extraction:

Study characteristics and results were extracted to a form developed by the authors and managed using NVivo 10 (QSR International’s NVivo 10 software). Data were extracted by 1 reviewer, and a sample (25%) was checked by a second reviewer.

Synthesis:

Data were synthesized using a thematic network and managed using NVivo 10. The validity of the included studies was assessed using the “Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (2018)” checklist. The ENTREQ and PRISMA statement was followed when reporting this qualitative synthesis.

Results:

Of the 1818 studies identified in the search strategy, 24 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. Global themes were identified using a thematic network. These themes were “Gender Bias in Sport,” “Motivation and Perceived Competence,” “Competing Priorities during Adolescence,” and “Meeting Societal Expectations.”

Conclusions:

The results of this review provide insights into adolescent girls’ views on physical activity. Future research is needed to investigate the potential impact of alternative activity programs on adolescent girls with appropriate follow-up. Researchers and individuals working with young girls must consider the role of perceived motor competence in participation and how this can impact their perceptions.

Keywords

adolescent girls physical activity systematic review qualitative synthesis perceptions

Introduction

Participation in regular physical activity (PA) is associated with numerous physical benefits, including reduced blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and reduced risk of coronary heart disease.^1
–3 Physical activity can also positively impact psychological well-being, reducing stress and anxiety.^1,2 Despite the strong evidence for PA engagement, physical inactivity has been identified as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality.⁴

Numerous benefits are associated with PA in school-aged children and adolescents.⁵ However, adolescents do not accumulate sufficient PA, failing to reach the recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity a day.⁶ Girls are frequently reported as being inactive,^6,7 with 95% of adolescent girls across 100 countries considered insufficiently active.⁶ The influences on PA participation during adolescence are multifactorial,⁸ and girls cite many barriers to their participation,⁹ including feeling incompetent and disliking structured sport.^10,11 Adolescent girls have demonstrated lower life satisfaction than their male counterparts,¹² and this evaluation of quality of life is an important indicator of well-being.¹² Similar to PA levels, life satisfaction decreases with age for this population.¹² The benefits gained from regular PA engagement are paramount during adolescence for growth and development,² with health behaviors adopted during adolescence tracking into adulthood.¹³ As adolescent behaviors are predictive of adult behaviors, promoting a healthy lifestyle at this stage is crucial to shape PA behaviors for life.¹⁴

Several interventions have targeted the PA behaviors of adolescents yet have only demonstrated modest effects.¹⁴ In the United States in particular, there have been some interventions targeting girls in both middle school (Trial of Activity in Adolescent Girls)¹⁵ and high school (Lifestyle Education for Activity Project).¹⁶ Interventions such as these that were based on extensive formative research did demonstrate increased PA in adolescent girls; however, the effects were modest. Interventions have been documented as being unsuccessful to date due to an inability to meet the interests of the participants, resulting in a contrast between the activities provided and the participants interests.¹⁷ Without the involvement of youth voice, interventions fail to accurately represent the needs of adolescents¹⁸; therefore, gaining an understanding of participant perceptions is integral for improving intervention design.¹⁹ Several qualitative studies have been conducted, providing insights into adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA, identifying various barriers and facilitators to PA^20

–23; however, no previous review has synthesized qualitative studies to allow for the development of overarching perceptions that go beyond individual study findings.²⁴

Objective

To synthesize evidence from qualitative studies relating to adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA participation.

Methods

The present article is reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and the Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the synthesis of Qualitative research (ENTREQ) statements (supplementary files 1 and 2).^25,26 The protocol for this review has been registered with PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=54944).

Data Sources

A preplanned electronic search was carried out on 4 electronic databases: PubMed, Sports Discus, Education Resources Information Centre, and Academic Search Complete. A record of the search strategy, which was developed in consultation with a librarian, is available in Supplementary file 3. Forward and backward citation searches of results from the online searches were also conducted.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies published between 2001 and 2016 reporting qualitative data exploring the views and perceptions of adolescent girls >12 years and <18 years old with regard to PA were included. Studies including both males and females were included if the data on females were presented separately to males.

Studies with a sport or physical education (PE) focus were excluded, as the aim of this review was to synthesis girls’ perceptions of PA, not a specific sport or subject. Studies focusing on special populations were also excluded (eg, individuals with cerebral palsy). Studies not in English were excluded as translation resources were not available. Finally, studies where the qualitative data were part of an existing intervention or program were excluded because the results pertained to adolescent’s views of the intervention, rather than PA in general.

Screening and Data Extraction

Results from the searches were imported into EndNote reference management software and duplicates were removed. Remaining studies were imported into Covidence (2016),²⁷ a web-based software to streamline systematic review production, and initially screened by title and abstract by 2 reviewers. Conflicts were resolved through discussion. Full text of studies was reviewed by 2 reviewers, and conflicts were resolved through discussion.

Study characteristics including setting, participants, data collection, and analysis were extracted to a form developed by the authors. Text under the results sections were extracted and imported into NVivo 10, a qualitative data management software. Data were extracted by 1 reviewer, and a sample (25%) was checked by a second reviewer.

Synthesis Methodology and Appraisal

A thematic synthesis following the guidelines of Thomas and Harden²⁸ was conducted. Thematic networks were used to draw on core features that were common to several studies.²⁹ Using a thematic network, basic, organizing, and global themes were created. Initial coding took place inductively on a subset of papers, coding line-by-line. A sample of studies (10%) were coded by a second reviewer to ensure all themes were considered. Once all initial coding was completed, basic themes were created and were combined to form organizing themes and subsequently grouped into global themes.²⁹

The quality and validity of included studies was assessed using the “Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (2018)” (CASP) toolkit,³⁰ allowing the researchers to assess the appropriateness of the methodology, participants, study design, and data analysis. The toolkit comprises of 10 questions, and 2 authors appraised each study independently. The results of these appraisals were compared, and conflicts were resolved through discussion.

Results

In all, 1818 studies were identified through database searches, 24 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis (see Figure 1); 29% (n = 7) were conducted in Canada, 21% (n = 5) in Australia, 16% (n = 4) in the United Kingdom, 16% (n = 4) in the United States, and the remaining studies were set in Asia, South America, South Africa, and Ireland. The school setting was used by most of studies (n = 20) and 5 studies included data from males and females. Content and thematic analysis was the most common analysis tool used within the included studies. Activity levels of participants varied across studies, with 41% (n = 10) involving a mixture of active and inactive participants,^{20,31

–39} 12% (n = 3) involved active participants,^22,40,41 and 4% (n = 1) contained mostly inactive participants.⁴² In 10 (41%) studies, participants’ activity levels were not explicitly stated.^{21,23,43

–50} The characteristics of included studies can be seen Table 1.

Figure 1.

PRISMA 2009 flow diagram.

Table 1.

Characteristics of Included Studies.

Reference	Title	Research Question	Perspective/Theoretical Base	Country	Setting	Participants	Data Collection	Analysis
Araki et al³¹	Experiences in Sport, Physical Activity, and Physical Education Among Christian, Buddhist and Hindu Asian Adolescent Girls	Gain knowledge and understanding about sociocultural factors that may explain adolescent girls’ perceptions and behaviors toward sport, physical activity (PA), and physical education (PE)	Transcendental phenomenology (method which focuses on the description of the experiences of the participants)	Japan and Singapore	Interviews conducted where participants felt comfortable eg. Home, church	N = 14 (Buddhist Japanese from Japan: N = 4) (Christian Chinese from Singapore: N = 5) (Hindu Indians from Singapore: N = 4) Mean age = 14.2 years	Demographic questionnaire (age, race/ethnicity/religion/country of birth/living situation/current participation in sport and PA) Two focus groups (45-90 minutes)	Horizontalization used to (1) highlight significant statements, (2) understand how they experience the phenomenon, (3)create clusters of meaning
Bélanger et al²⁰	Maintenance and decline of physical activity during adolescence: insights from a qualitative study	To use qualitative research methods to explore how adolescents who maintained high levels of PA differ from those who went from being very physically active to now taking part in little PA in relation to their PA-related attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control	Theory of Planned Behavior used as a framework	Canada	Secondary school	N = 165 (58 boys, 107 girls)	Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A) and focus group discussions Two focus groups were held with each of maintainer-boys, maintainer-girls, and decliner-girls, whereas only one group was held with decliner-boys	Thematic analysis
Casey et al³²	“Power, regulation and physically active identities”: the experiences of rural and regional living adolescent girls	To explore the discourses and power relations operative between groups of girls who appeared to influence their participation in PE and outside school in sport and PA in both rural and regional communities/the nuanced effect of “what” and “how” messages about the body (and being physically active) are normalized and regulated among rural and regional living adolescent girls in the context of peer relations as enacted in school-based PE and sport.	Interpretations of Foucault’s techniques of power	Australia	Secondary school	N = 138 Age range: 14-16	Qualitative interviews (n = 48) and focus group discussions (n = 25)	Poststructuralist perspective that drew on Gore’s work of power relations in pedagogical practices, informed by Foucault’s theorizing of power, was used to analyze the girls narratives.
Casey et al³³	Using a Socioecological Approach to Examine Participation in Sport and Physical Activity among Rural Adolescent Girls	To use the socioecological model of health to identify a range of independent and interacting factors—individual, intrapersonal, organizational and environmental that influence participation in sports and/or PA	Socioecological model of health	Australia	Secondary school	N = 34 Age range 12-13	60 minutes focus groups with 5-7 participants in each and short form detailing participant demographics (age, country of birth, etc)	Thematic analysis
Craike et al⁴³	A comparative study of factors influencing participation in sport and physical activity for metropolitan and rural female adolescents	To provide a comparative analysis of the influence of behavioral alternatives, autonomy, competence, and relatedness on participation in sport and PA for female adolescents within metropolitan and rural settings.	The Sport Commitment Model and the Self-Determination Theory	Australia	Secondary school	N = 123 Age 12-13 and 15-16	18 focus groups and questionnaire about participant demographic	Content and thematic analysis
Dagkas and Hunter⁴⁴	“Racialised” pedagogic practices influencing young Muslims’ physical culture	To examine the “racialized” pedagogic practices in various fields that influence young Muslims’ dispositions to physical culture	Based on Bourdieu’s Social Theory Follows a case study approach	England	Secondary school	N = 40 (20 boys and 20 girls) Age 12-15	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis
Dwyer et al²¹	Adolescent Girls’ Perceived Barriers to Participation in Physical Activity	To explore perceived barriers to participation in moderate to vigorous PA among adolescent girls who live in a large diverse city	NA	Canada	Secondary school	N = 73 15-16 years	Seven focus group interviews 90 minutes long with 8-12 participants in each	Constant comparison approach to inductively create themes
Eime et al⁴⁰	Transition in participation in sport and unstructured physical activity for rural living adolescent girls	To examine the views of active rural living girls regarding the factors affecting their sport and PA participation	Socioecological model	Australia	Secondary school	N = 27 Ages 16-17	Semi-structured focus group discussions	Content and thematic analysis
Gavin et al²²	Adolescents’ Perception of the Psychosocial Factors affecting Sustained Engagement in Sports and Physical Activity	To explore adolescents’ perceptions of psychosocial influences, personal characteristics, environmental factors, and behavioral undertakings influencing their prolonged involvement in sports and PA	Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism and the Health Action Process Approach	Canada	Secondary school	N = 16 (8 males, 8 females) Mean age 15.9	Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis
Gillison et al⁴¹	What motivates girls to take up exercise during adolescence? Learning from those who succeed	To explore factors that underpin increased internalization (ie, perceived autonomy) in motivation toward exercise over 1-year period in adolescent girls	Self-Determination Theory	England	Secondary school	N = 107 Mean age 13.28	PAQ-A to assess changes in exercise Behavioral Regulation for Exercise Questionnaire to measure motivation for exercise Goal Content for Exercise Questionnaire to assess intrinsic and extrinsic exercise goals Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis
Humbert et al⁴⁵	Using a Naturalistic Ecological Approach to Examine the Factors Influencing Youth Physical Activity Across Grades 7-12	Using a qualitative ecological framework to examine the intrapersonal, social, and environmental factors influencing youth PA	Ecological Model	Canada	Secondary school	N = 160 Age 12-18	Focus group interviews	Content analysis Categories clustered to identify themes
Loman²³	Physical Activity in Teen Girls: Insights from focus groups	To describe adolescent girls’ views about PA and explore strategies that nurses can use to promote PA	Social Cognitive Theory	United States	Schools and neighborhood health centers	N = 28 Age 12-18	Focus group interviews 1-1.5 hours	Content analysis
Mabry et al³⁴	Physical Activity Attitudes of African American and White Adolescent Girls	To identify and compare attitudes of African American adolescent girls toward PA with the attitudes of white adolescent girls	NA	United States	Secondary school	N = 49 Age 14-18	6 focus groups with adolescent girls lasting 90 minutes Average 8 participants per group	Thematic analysis
McEvoy et al⁴⁶	Physical Activity experiences of young people in an area of disadvantage: “There’s nothing there for big kids, like us”	To explore the forces which enable and constrain the participation of youths in PA and the interplay between such forces and how they experience and exercise agency	Social-constructivist paradigm	Ireland	Areas of disadvantage	N = 40 (21 males, 19 females) Age range 15-19	Focus group interviews 22 attended both interviews 11 attended only the initial and 7 only attended the follow-up	Thematic analysis
Monge-Rojas et al⁴⁷	Barriers to and Suggestions for a Healthful, Active Lifestyle as Perceived by Rural and Urban Costa Rican Adolescents	To assess the perceptions of rural and urban Costa Rican adolescents regarding which barriers and motivators affect their adoption of an active lifestyle	NA	Costa Rica	Secondary school	N = 108 (53 males, 55 females) 12-18 years	Focus group discussions	Content analysis
Morrison et al⁴⁸	Perceptions of Physical Activity and Influences of Participation in Young African-American Adolescent Girls	To explore African American adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA participation, examine how PA is defined, and identify the most preferred forms of PA	NA	United States	Convenience sample used	N = 30 Mean age 14.3	Focus group interviews 3 focus groups with 8-12 participants in each	Thematic analysis
Phillips and Awotidebe⁴⁹	The influence of the social environment on youth physical activity	To explore the social environmental factors that influence the PA participation among female school-going adolescents in the Western Cape	NA	South Africa	Secondary school	N = 55 Age between 15 and 18 (mean age 15.8)	Focus group discussions	The Model of Tesch guided data analysis
Sleap and Wormald⁴²	Perceptions of Physical Activity Among Young Women aged 16 and 17 years	To learn about the relationships between young women, health, and participation in PA	Critical Feminist model (this model suggests if there is a social expectation for young women to be sedentary this will act as a powerful barrier to engagement in PA)	United Kingdom	Part of “well woman” sessions—normally conducted by school nurses	N = 52 16-17 years	Focus group discussions 8 focus groups, 30-45 minutes	Interpretative approach—content analysis technique
Smith et al³⁵	Youth perceptions of how neighbourhood physical environment and peers affect physical activity: A focus group study	To assess youths’ perceptions of their neighborhood physical and peer environments as affecting PA	Youth-centered approach	United States	Secondary school	N = 33 (20 females, 13 males) 12-14 years	Focus group discussions	Inductive content analysis
Walia and Leipert⁵⁰	Perceived Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity for Rural Youth: An Exploratory Study using Photovoice	To identify activities in which rural youth in a secondary school participated, determine facilitators and barriers to PA for these rural youth, and examine how rural barriers and facilitators affect rural youths’ PA	Photovoice	Canada	Secondary school	N = 9 (5 males, 4 females) Age 13-18	Photovoice Interviews	Photovoice methodology analysis of photographs and line-by-line content analysis of interview and logbook transcripts
Watson et al³⁶	Perceived barriers and facilitators to participation in physical activity during the school lunch break for girls aged 12-13 years	To understand influences on girls’ participation in PA during school lunch time to help increase PA levels for this demographic	Social Constructionist framework	Australia	Secondary school	N = 13 12-13 years	Focus group interviews 3-4 per group	Thematic content analysis
Whitehead and Biddle³⁷	Adolescent girls’ perceptions of physical activity: A focus group study	To build a comprehensive picture of PA as it relates to adolescent girls	NA	United Kingdom	Secondary school	N = 47 14-16 years	Exploratory focus group discussions 8 focus groups with 5-7 participants 45-minute long Students studying General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) PE were interviewed separately to those not studying it as an examination subject	Thematic analysis
Yungblut et al³⁸	Views of adolescent female youth on physical activity during early adolescence	To gain further understanding of the lived PA experiences during early adolescence, delineating their barriers to participation and the factors enabling participation	Interpretive Phenomenology	Canada	Secondary school	N = 35 12-14 years and 15-18 years	Focus groups (6-8 in each) Individual interviews (45 minutes)	Thematic synthesis
Yungblut et al³⁹	Understanding Physical Activity through the Experiences of Adolescent Girls	To extend previous qualitative research on adolescent female PA via an interpretive phenomenological approach, providing readers with a better understanding of how girls conceptualize PA during early adolescence	Interpretive Phenomenological	Canada	Secondary school	N = 35 12-14 and 15–18 years	Open-ended, semi-structured interviews	Flexible analysis

In general, the included studies met the CASP criteria in terms of clarity of aims, appropriate design, and rigorous data analysis. The majority (n = 19) provided insufficient detail regarding a consideration of the researcher/participant relationship and details of ethical approval and informed consent.

Initial coding resulted in the development of 73 basic codes. Basic codes were then grouped into organizing themes (n = 18). Analysis of organizing themes resulted in the development of 4 global themes: “Gender bias in sport,” Motivation and perceived competence,” “Competing priorities during adolescence,” and “Meeting societal expectations.” These themes and their subthemes are discussed below. Quotations from participants in included studies are presented in “italics.”

“Gender Bias in Sport”

The first major theme encompassed pressures from society to uphold a feminine image and internal barriers felt regarding participation in PA. Across studies, authors reported struggles faced by girls attempting to be active in a society which they perceived to portray PA as something masculine.

Body image/body-centered issues

Internal barriers, including body image and menstruation, were discussed in 15 studies.^{21,23,31

–34,36

–42,47,48} Across these studies, girls with low perceived competence and high weight status discussed how this acted as a barrier for their participation. Many overweight girls lacked motor skills and held a negative attitude toward PA, finding the prospect of being active daunting, especially in the presence of males. A fear of embarrassment hindered participation, with several girls across studies noting it is not possible to look good²³ and be active at the same time as: what stops a lot of girls from doing sports is that they’re worried about how they look, their make-up, and everything.²¹

Biological changes experienced during puberty also deterred participation. In several studies, girls discussed feeling gross³⁸ and experiencing discomfort while menstruating, leading to increased self-consciousness and reduced PA. Some girls reported using menstruation as an excuse to opt of PE: Sometimes I lie and say I have my [menstrual] period and that I don’t feel well, so the teacher lets me skip [the] class.⁴⁷

Societal pressure

Societal pressure, including bullying and stereotypes of femininity, were discussed in 18 of the studies.^{20,21,23,31

–37,39

–43,45,47,50} Girls experienced teasing from peers due to low competence levels, and pressures to perform deterred their desire to participate: If you are in a team with all the good people, you have to make sure that you do everything right, there’s always pressure.³³

Another common assumption across the studies was that PA was not suitable for girls. A fear of being viewed negatively for engaging in activities that were not considered gender-appropriate deterred their participation. Girls were aware of the gendered nature of PA, discussing how they would be viewed as “masculine” if they did not conform to societal norms. Girls were reluctant to participate in what they considered to be “boys sports”: if some girls wanna play football or soccer (mm) and then some like other girls that don’t want to play it, [they] just look at them weirdly and say you’re a boy, you’re playing a boy’s game.³⁶ Being physically active contradicted the image of femininity portrayed to girls by society.

Peer and teacher feedback

The influence of both teacher and peer feedback was discussed in 21 of the included studies.^{20,21,23,31

–34,36,38,40

–50} The opinions of boys had a particularly strong influence on girls PA perceptions: Some of the girls…when they’re trying to be, trying to join in and trying to be good sports (mm) and people [boys] are teasing them about it, so it can affect them so they just don’t.³⁶ The influence of the PE teacher also impacted girls’ perceptions of PA, with several girls noting that male PE teachers were unsupportive, too competitive, and more interested in the boys in the class: Male [teachers] just make you think that you just don’t want to do it.³³ There was an assumption that some PE teachers assumed that girls did not want to participate and did not encourage their participation. In fact, several girls across the studies found that PE teachers often discouraged their participation in PA, claiming the boys would be “too rough” on them, emphasizing the gendered roles evident in PA and team sports.

However, active girls received positive feedback from both peers and teachers. Their high skill levels and perceived competence led to encouragement from teachers: One of the teachers said I was really good at netball at school and that’s when I tried to get into netball.³³ Due to their higher skill levels, being able to participate with peers was fun, unlike the inactive girls who found trying to participate with skilled peers stressful. These active adolescents also discussed the benefits of PA to make new friends. Making new friends and being able to actively participate made PA fun, which helped sustain their motivation for engagement: Having friends there makes it a lot easier; it makes it more comfortable to do sports, and because you get to spend more time with friends, you look forward to the activities.³⁹

“Motivation and Perceived Competence”

The second theme describes the contrast in motivation felt by active and inactive girls. Across studies, girls with low perceived competence discussed how their lack of motivation stemmed from low levels of perceived skill, a dislike of team sports, and negative feedback from peers and teachers.

Low perceived skill

Ability levels and competition were discussed in several studies.^{20,21,32
–34,36
–38,40,41,43,45,48,50} Within these studies, inactive girls discussed how their low motivation derived from their perceived low competence. Comparison of skill levels among peers led to disengagement. Girls often described enjoying PA yet withdrew because their peers were perceived to be more skilled. A reluctance to learn new skills or join new teams during adolescence was also seen, with girls explaining there was no point trying as you got older: I eventually stopped trying to do well in gym because I didn’t care—I wasn’t going to be good at it anyway.³⁸

Levels of competition increased during adolescence and pressure to perform well in a team setting led to high levels of disengagement. Girls within the studies discussed the burden of being placed on a “good team,” with poor performances leading to ridicule from peers. Girls also noted that as competition levels increased, those with lower levels of motor competence would not be chosen for a team. The embarrassment of not being picked resulted in girls no longer feeling a desire to try, with one participant saying don’t bother trying (to get into a sport team) you know you won’t get in if you have limited skills.⁴³

However, girls who perceived themselves to have high competence and skill were constantly cited as enjoying PA. Unlike their inactive peers, these girls thrived in competitive settings and enjoyed working to increase their skill levels. Being involved in competition provided an exhilarating rush: I like the flush you get out of being competitive, being competitive in sport, I love that.⁴⁰ These girls enjoyed being able to socialize and compete with their friends. These active girls were constantly motivated by the prospect of improving themselves and reaching goals. In contrast to their inactive peers, these girls liked to participate with males, stating it was more fun as boys provided higher levels of competition: boys, they really bring the excitement!⁴⁸

PA opportunities

Activities offered during PE, team sports, and a desire for single-sex classes were discussed in 22 of the included studies.^{20,21,23,31

–37,39

–48,50} Within studies reporting data from less active girls, competitive sports and school PE were discouraging to their engagement: And we had the bleep test like nearly every month. It was AWFUL—err I hated it. The dropout rate went up because we just couldn’t be bothered to do it—we hated it—that awful taste in your mouth.⁴² Negative PE experiences revolved around competitive team-based sports. The lack of variety and emphasis on skill did not appeal to these girls. A desire for single-sex classes and a wider variety of content was expressed, emphasizing fun and involvement rather than skill and competition: There should be more boys’ classes and girls’ classes because it makes you feel more comfortable and you would make more effort and all the girls would encourage each other.³³

“Competing Priorities During Adolescence”

The third theme highlights competing priorities, including increased school work, part-time jobs, and responsibilities at home. The PA was not perceived to be important enough to be prioritized in the lives of many adolescent girls with competing priorities discussed in 14 of the included studies.^{20,21,31,34,37,40,42

–47,49,50}

School work and home responsibilities

The increased importance of education and performance in examinations takes precedence over being physically active during adolescence. Many girls discussed not having time to do any PA due to increased workloads in school and the pressure from parents to perform well: Pretty much when I’m not at school I’m doing school work at home.⁵⁰

As well as increased school work, several adolescents within the studies described increased responsibilities at home, which restricted their ability to participate in PA. Doing housework, looking after younger siblings, and part-time employment were given a higher priority than PA. Taking on these responsibilities, combined with their school workload, left girls feeling they didn’t have time to be physically active: There are things that hold me back, like work. Work is a big issue because you can’t tell them, Oh well, that’s when I go to the gym, at night. They don’t care. You’re scheduled and you’re going to have to work.²¹

Parental expectations

The expectations of parents and grandparents also influenced the girls’ perceptions of the importance of PA. Several girls discussed how their parents devalued PA, encouraging their daughters to study different subjects in school and to focus on achieving high grades: But she doesn’t want me to; she said get that out of your mind, what’s PE going to do for you in your life?.⁴⁴ From the included studies, several girls discuss how their parents would actively discourage their PA participation in favor of studying or working part time. This discouragement impacts the girls’ perceptions of PA, leading them to devalue and deprioritize it with the aim of pleasing their parents.

Changes in leisure activities

Another competing priority was the change in leisure experiences during adolescence. Adolescents have increased opportunities for leisure activities as they get older. The participants in several studies said they preferred to “hang out” with friends at shopping centers, go to the cinema, or spend time with boyfriends rather than be physically active: I like hanging out with mates just chilling, actually partying.⁴³ Some participants discussed how being physically active was not “cool” and opted to participate in alternative leisure activities.

“Meeting Societal Expectations”

The final theme discusses the influence of external factors, such as environments and the influence of peers and adults. For the self-proclaimed active girls, these influences are positive and encourage their involvement. Conversely, for those inactive girls, the influences in their lives are largely negative, leading to a disengagement from PA.

Peer influence

The influence of peers on adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA was discussed in 17 of the included studies.^{20,21,23,31

–34,37,38,40
–42,44
–46,48,50} This influence was either positive or negative. For some girls, if their friends were involved in PA, then it became a motivating factor for them to be active too as well as increasing enjoyment levels and providing positive activity experiences: My best friend dances with me and it’s way more motivating cause then you know you won’t be alone when you need to go somewhere, and you tell yourself it’s going to be real fun.²⁰ However, in some cases within the included studies, girls discussed how they failed to participate in PA due to peer influence. This occurred for 2 reasons: first, girls didn’t want to participate in PA because their friends didn’t. If they participated, it meant they missed opportunities to spend time with friends, and as discussed in theme 3, these alternative activities took precedence during adolescence. The second reason was a fear of ridicule from friends: Some of the guys they like gang up on the girls and they just like make fun of them, like the way they look, and…they don’t want you playing with them and stuff.³⁵ Girls spoke of a reluctance to participate in activities because it led to their friends teasing them and excluding them from conversations.

Adult influence

Like peer influences, the influence of parents and adults on adolescent’s perceptions of PA had both positive and negative impacts. These influences were discussed in 17 of the included studies.^{20,21,31

–34,36,37,40,42

–47,49,50} Girls with parents and teachers who supported and encouraged them to participate in PA had positive perceptions, in comparison to girls who lacked these supportive role models. These adolescents discussed how their parents never engaged in PA, or encouraged them to be active, leading to the development of negative opinions of PA. Lack of support from adults resulted in adolescents failing to see the value of PA and led them to mimic the inactive lifestyles they had observed at home: I was just tired of asking them (parents) for drives so I just quit.²⁰

Community influences

The community and environment in which an adolescent lived also impacted their perceptions of PA, with adolescents in rural and urban settings having varying opinions. These issues were discussed in 12 of the included studies.^{32
–34,40,42,43,45
–47,49,50} Those in rural settings found they were limited in their choice of activities, making it difficult to participate in PA: In a little town it is kind of hard because there are not many teams.³³ If you failed to participate in a team sport, the likelihood you participated in PA was very low. In urban settings, however, there was a greater variety in activities, although financial constraints often hindered involvement, with girls discussing how gym membership was too expensive. Urban settings were also considered to have higher levels of competition: In the city its tougher competition to here. There’s more people and that makes it harder as well⁴⁰; therefore, if girls didn’t perceive themselves as competent in team sports, they were likely to cease participation.

Discussion

The present review is the first synthesis of qualitative studies focusing on adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA. The methods employed were transparent, rigorous, and reported according to published guidelines. The presented themes illustrate the opinions of both active and inactive girls in relation to their PA participation. This qualitative synthesis provides valuable insights into opinions of adolescent girls, which should be considered when creating opportunities to increase their PA levels. The results also provide practical application for researchers, policymakers, and individuals working to increase PA levels of adolescent girls in school or community settings.

Across studies, participants discussed the gendered nature of sport and PA. Historically, PA has been categorized into masculine and feminine domains,⁵¹ with the majority of team-based sports being associated with traditional masculine qualities such as strength and competitiveness.^52,53 Within the media, PA has also been traditionally portrayed as masculine, emphasizing aggression and strength.⁵⁴ The gender roles in PA portrayed in society are adopted from a young age, and during adolescence there is a desire to align with peers and define oneself as either masculine or feminine.⁵⁵ Several girls within the included studies perceived PA and sport to be unfeminine, and their desires to appear feminine and fit in with peers deterred PA participation. Therefore, to change perceptions and increase participation rates, girls must feel empowered and motivated to be active and be given the tools to rethink their stereotyped perceptions of PA.⁵⁶ The PA opportunities provided must be on their terms⁵⁷ and their ideas must be included in an effort to create a positive environment and increase PA levels.⁵⁶

Along with the gendered nature of PA, levels of perceived competence, fear of embarrassment, and the type of activities provided influenced adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA across studies. Many of the self-proclaimed inactive girls reported low perceived competence, experienced humiliation in front of peers, and felt activities available did not encourage their participation. Perceived competence is central to self-esteem,⁵⁸ with motor skill proficiency developed as a child being a key indicator of positive competence, and in turn PA particiaption.^58,59 Given that much of school-based activities focus on team-based competitive sports,⁶⁰ girls lacking motor competence are often marginalized within PA. The traditional team-based setting where individual failure is negatively viewed results in girls opting out of PA, avoiding activities they feel they will not succeed in.^61,62 Less competent girls within this review found PE placed too much emphasis on performance and activities outside school were heavily focused on competition and ability. The PE is an ideal venue to increase actual and perceived motor competence (PMC) of children and adolescents,⁵⁹ with several studies reporting the positive impact PE can have on perceived competence.^63
–65 Although several studies focus on developing fundamental movement skills (FMS) in primary-aged students, emphasis must also be placed on those adolescents who have failed to adequately develop FMS, as there is a relationship between PMC, actual motor competence, and subsequent development of PA.⁵⁸ Perceived competence is particularly important for adolescents, as De Meester et al found adolescents with low actual motor competence but high PMC were more active than their peers with lower perceived competence, illustrating the importance of increasing PMC of this population.⁶⁶ Improving PMC and providing opportunities that encourage lifelong PA, emphasizing enjoyment over competition, should be prioritized for adolescent girls.

Another prominent theme regarding PA perceptions was the concept of having “no time” to be active. Competing priorities such as homework, part-time jobs, and spending time with peers were some of the reasons cited by girls in this review. The PA was not seen as valuable and therefore was not prioritized over other responsibilities. Schools provide an optimal site for the promotion and encouragement of PA, as young people spend most of their waking hours in school.⁶⁷ However, due to increased pressure for schools to produce high-quality standardized test scores, time spent in academic subjects are often increased, while time spent in PE is decreased or eliminated.^68,69 This illustrates to girls that PA should not be prioritized over academic subjects, and within this review it is evident that adolescent girls fail to see the value of PA. However, participation in regular PA has been shown to have a positive impact on learning and memory,⁷⁰ helping to improve cognitive performance and academic achievement.⁶⁸,⁷¹ Introducing more PA time in schools does not have a detrimental impact on academic performance,⁷² but rather it can improve concentration and attention levels.⁷⁰ There is potential to increase the PA participation rates of girls if schools focused on the educational potential of PE rather than competition.⁷⁰ Highlighting the full range of benefits of PA to adolescent girls could be a key strategy in shifting their perceptions and getting them to prioritize their PA habits.

Finally, the influence of peers and friendship groups plays an important role in determining adolescent’s perceptions of PA, and this was evident in the included studies in both positive and negative ways. Peer support for PA with adolescent girls declines with age, while the importance of peer support for PA participation increases.⁷³,⁷⁴ This trend was evident within this review, and participants with active peers were more likely to be active, while those with inactive peers were more likely to disengage from activity. The role of friendship groups must be considered when providing girls PA opportunities, as some girls will choose to participate in PA based on who else is participating, rather than the activity being offered.⁷⁴ Choosing activities based on friendship groups can lead to the development of a positive learning environment and increased levels of fun and engagement.⁷⁴

It is important to note that while the aim of this review was to investigate adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA without focusing specifically on school PE or sport, it became clear in this review that most adolescent girls cannot distinguish between the 3. This would suggest that PE and team sports are the main sources of activity for adolescent girls or that they do not identify other activities such as walking to school and others as PA. This further emphasizes the importance of providing opportunities for girls to engage in lifelong PA and introducing them to other forms of PA in both school and community settings that do not revolve around competitive team-based sports.

Implications for Future Research and Practice

The results of this qualitative synthesis provide insights into adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA, which can inform attempts to increase the PA levels of this cohort. However, the low number of included studies (n = 24) indicates the need for additional research to be done to truly understand how the activity levels of this cohort can be increased. Based on the findings from this review, it is recommended that future interventions focus on developing PMC in adolescents, as low perceived competence was often cited as a barrier to participation. As well as increasing PMC, future research is needed to investigate the potential impact of PA programs in schools incorporating peer leaders as peer support was found to be extremely important in this review. Studies aim to distinguish clearly between girls who are active and those who are not and to allow for researchers to learn from the girls who participate in PA. The PA programs for girls in both school and community settings should focus on alternative activities aside from the competitive team-based sports often offered. Opportunities to engage in single-sex activities may also be important for girls. Future programs should also focus on developing PA habits for lifelong engagement. Educating girls on the range of benefits of PA is also important as the findings from this review illustrate the PA is not prioritized during adolescence. Doing so will allow for a shift in thinking, allowing adolescents to view PA as an important priority in their life.

Strengths and Limitations

The qualitative nature of this synthesis is a strength of the review, allowing for the development of themes and ideas which go beyond the findings of individual papers. The reporting of this review followed the PRISMA and ENTREQ guidelines, as well as adopting a rigorous search strategy and analysis of the findings. Limitations included the homogeneous nature of the settings for included studies, with over half being conducted in Canada and the United States. Additional research is needed in other countries to investigate the perceptions of adolescent girls from different cultures and countries. Similarly, there was inconsistency in the reporting of activity levels of participants within studies, with not all studies identifying the views of perceived “active” or “inactive” girls. Another potential limitation is that 19 of the 24 included studies provided insufficient detail regarding informed consent, ethical approval, and consideration of researcher/participant relationship. This may reflect issues with reporting, rather than the actual conduct of the studies; however, it is important that future studies are explicit in their reporting with regard to consent, ethical approval, and the participant–researcher relationship.

Conclusion

This qualitative synthesis of studies examining adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA demonstrates that PA behavior in this group is a complex topic, and many factors impact their perceptions. We have highlighted possible directions for future research and practice; however, more work is needed to investigate the potential impact of alternative PA programs on adolescent girls. Researchers and individuals working with young girls must also consider the important role of PMC in PA and how this can positively or negatively impact PA participation.

So What?

The present qualitative synthesis provides a thorough review of adolescent girls’ perceptions of PA, makes recommendations for future research, and reveals potential limitations in the existing evidence base.

It is important to note that within the included studies, adolescent girls conflated PA, sport, and PE. This would suggest that adolescent girls do not identify other forms of PA outside these domains (eg, walking to school). Our findings suggest PA programs for girls in both school and community settings should focus on alternative activities aside from the competitive team-based sports often offered. Opportunities to engage in single-sex activities may also be important for girls. Future programs should also focus on developing PA habits for lifelong engagement. Educating girls on the range of benefits of PA is also important as the findings from this review illustrate the PA is not prioritized during adolescence.

More high-quality studies are needed to increase the overall body of evidence on this topic. Future studies should report detailed information on informed consent, participant/researcher relationship, and ethical approval. Qualitative studies should also be diligent in distinguishing between the perceptions of girls who currently engage in PA and those who do not, allowing for the identification of strategies that work to engage girls in PA.

Supplemental Material

Supplementary_File_1 - Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

Supplementary_File_1 for Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies by Méabh Corr, Jennifer McSharry and Elaine M. Murtagh in American Journal of Health Promotion

Supplemental Material

Supplementary_File_2 - Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

Supplementary_File_2 for Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies by Méabh Corr, Jennifer McSharry and Elaine M. Murtagh in American Journal of Health Promotion

Supplemental Material

Supplementary_File_3 - Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

Supplementary_File_3 for Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies by Méabh Corr, Jennifer McSharry and Elaine M. Murtagh in American Journal of Health Promotion

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article:Méabh Corr is supported by a PhD Studentship from Mary Immaculate College.

ORCID iD

Méabh Corr

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References

Dumith

Gigante

Domingues

Kohl

III . Physical activity change during adolescence: a systematic review and a pooled analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40(3):685–698.

Hills

Dengel

Lubans

. Supporting public health priorities: recommendations for physical education and physical activity promotion in schools. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;57(4):368–374.

Penedo

Dahn

. Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005;18(2):189–193.

World Health Organization. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. Geneva: WHO; 2010.

Janssen

LeBlanc

. Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2010;7(1):40.

Hallal

Andersen

Bull

Guthold

Haskell

Ekelund

. Global physical activity levels: surveillance progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Lancet. 2012;380(9838):247–257.

Currie

. Regional Office for Europe, Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (Survey): Social Determinants of Health and Well-Being Among Young People: Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the 2009/2010 Survey. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2012.

Barr-Anderson

Neumark-Sztainer

Schmitz

. But i like PE: factors associated with enjoyment of physical education class in middle school girls. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008;79(1):18–27.

Edwardson

Harrington

Yates

. A cluster randomised controlled trial to investigate the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of the ‘Girls Active’ intervention: a study protocol. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:526.

10.

Woods

Tannehill

Quinlan

Moyna

Walsh

. The Children’s Sport Participation and Physical Activity Study (CSPPA). Dublin, Ireland: School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University and The Irish Sports Council; 2010.

11.

Rees

Kavanagh

Harden

. Young people and physical activity: a systematic review matching their views to effective interventions. Health Educ Res. 2006;21(6):806–825.

12.

Cavallo

Dalmasso

Ottová-Jordan

. Trends in life satisfaction in European and North-American adolescents from 2002 to 2010 in over 30 countries. Eur J Public Health. 2015;25(suppl 2):80–82.

13.

Murillo Pardo

Garcia Bengoechea

Generelo Lanaspa

. Promising school-based strategies and intervention guidelines to increase physical activity of adolescents. Health Educ Res. 2013;28(3):523–538.

14.

Pearson

Braithwaite

Biddle

SJH

. The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity among adolescent girls: a meta-analysis. Acad Pediatr. 2015;15(1):9–18.

15.

Webber

Catellier

Lytle

. promoting physical activity in middle school girls: trial of activity for adolescent girls. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34(3):173–184.

16.

Pate

Ward

Saunders

Felton

Dishman

Dowda

. Promotion of physical activity among high-school girls: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(9):1582–1587.

17.

James

Todd

Scott

. Teenage recommendations to improve physical activity for their age group: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):372.

18.

Jacquez

Vaughn

Wagner

. Youth as partners, participants or passive recipients: a review of children and adolescents in community-based participatory research (CBPR). Am J Community Psychol. 2013;51(1-2):176–189.

19.

Corder

Atkin

Ekelund

van Sluijs

. What do adolescents want in order to become more active?. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):718.

20.

Belanger

Casey

Cormier

. Maintenance and decline of physical activity during adolescence: insights from a qualitative study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2011;8:117.

21.

Dwyer

Allison

Goldenberg

Fein

Yoshida

Boutilier

. Adolescent girls’ perceived barriers to participation in physical activity. Adolescence. 2006;41(161):75–89.

22.

Gavin

McBrearty

Malo

KIT

Abravanel

Moudrakovski

. Adolescents’ perception of the psychosocial factors affecting sustained engagement in sports and physical activity. Int J Exerc Sci. 2016;9(4):384–411.

23.

Loman

. Promoting physical activity in teen girls: insight from focus groups. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 2008;33(5):294–299;quiz 300-291.

24.

Pope

. Qualitative research: reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods. BMJ Open. 1995;311:42–45.

25.

Tong

Flemming

McInnes

Oliver

Craig

. Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research: ENTREQ. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2012;12(1):181.

26.

Moher

Liberati

Tetzlaff

. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):264–269.

27.

Covidence 2016 [computer program]. Version Accessed 27 January 2017. Melbourne; 2016. Available at www.covidence.org.

28.

Thomas

Harden

. Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2008;8:45.

29.

Attride-Stirling

. Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research. Qualitat Res. 2001;1(3):385–405.

30.

Oxford. Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) (2018). CASP. http://www.casp-uk.net/checklists. Accessed January 2017.

31.

Araki

Kodani

Gupta

Gill

. Experiences in sport, physical activity, and physical education among Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu Asian adolescent girls. J Prev Med Public Health. 2013;46(suppl 1):S43–S49.

32.

Casey

Mooney

Smyth

Payne

. ‘Power, regulation and physically active identities’: the experiences of rural and regional living adolescent girls. Gender Educ. 2016;28(1):108–127.

33.

Casey

Eime

Payne

Harvey

. Using a socioecological approach to examine participation in sport and physical activity among rural adolescent girls. Qual Health Res. 2009;19(7):881–893.

34.

Mabry

Young

Cooper

Meyers

Joffe

Duggan

. Physical activity attitudes of African American and white adolescent girls. Ambul Pediatr. 2003;3(6):312–316.

35.

Smith

Troped

McDonough

DeFreese

. Youth perceptions of how neighborhood physical environment and peers affect physical activity: a focus group study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2015;12:1–9.

36.

Watson

Eliott

Mehta

. Perceived barriers and facilitators to participation in physical activity during the school lunch break for girls aged 12–13 years. Eur Phys Educ Rev. 2015;21(2):257–271.

37.

Whitehead

Biddle

. Adolescent girls’ perception of physical activity: a focus group study. [Die Wahrnehmung der körperlichen Aktivität bei jugendlichen Mädchen Eine Zielgruppenanalyse]. Eur Phys Educ Ref. 2008;14(2):243–262.

38.

Yungblut

Schinke

McGannon

. Views of adolescent female youth on physical activity during early adolescence. J Sports Sci Med. 2012;11(1):39–50.

39.

Yungblut

Schinke

McGannon

Eys

. Understanding physical activity through the experiences of adolescent girls. Women Sport Phys Activity J. 2012;21(1):3–14.

40.

Eime

Payne

Casey

Harvey

. Transition in participation in sport and unstructured physical activity for rural living adolescent girls. Health Educ Res. 2010;25(2):282–293.

41.

Gillison

Sebire

Standage

. What motivates girls to take up exercise during adolescence? Learning from those who succeed. Br J Health Psychology. 2012;17(3):536–550.

42.

Sleap

Wormald

. Perceptions of physical activity among young women aged 16 and 17 years. Eur J Phys Educ. 2001;6(1):26–37.

43.

Craike

Symons

Eime

Payne

Harvey

. A comparative study of factors influencing participation in sport and physical activity for metropolitan and rural female adolescents. Ann Leisure Res. 2011;14(4):355–368.

44.

Dagkas

Hunter

. ‘Racialised’ pedagogic practices influencing young Muslims’ physical culture. Phys Educ Sport Pedagogy. 2015;20(5):547–558.

45.

Humbert

Chad

Bruner

. Using a naturalistic ecological approach to examine the factors influencing youth physical activity across grades 7 to 12. Health Educ Behav. 2008;35(2):158–173.

46.

McEvoy

MacPhail

Enright

Physical activity experiences of young people in an area of disadvantage: ‘there’s nothing there for big kids, like us’. Sport Educ Soc. 2016;21(8):1161–1175.

47.

Monge-Rojas

Garita-Arce

Sanchez-Lopez

Colon-Ramos

. Barriers to and suggestions for a healthful, active lifestyle as perceived by rural and urban Costa Rican adolescents. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2009;41(3):152–160.

48.

Morrison

Knight

Crew-Gooden

. Perceptions of physical activity and influences of participation in young African-American adolescent girls. J Natl Black Nurs Assoc. 2015;26(2):51–59.

49.

Phillips

Awotidebe

. The influence of the social environment on youth physical activity. Afr J Phy Health Educ Recreat Dance. 2015;21(1):263–271.

50.

Walia

Leipert

. Perceived facilitators and barriers to physical activity for rural youth: an exploratory study using photovoice. Rural Remote Health. 2012;12:1842.

51.

Koivula

. Perceived characteristics of sports categorized as gender-neutral, feminine and masculine. J Sport Behav. 2001;24(4):377.

52.

Jun

Kyle

. Gender identity, leisure identity, and leisure participation. J Leisure Res. 2012;44(3):353–378.

53.

McCallister

Blinde

Phillips

. Prospects for change in a new millennium: gender beliefs of young girls in sport and physical activity. Women Sport Phys Activity J. 2003;12(2):83–109.

54.

Hardin

Greer

. The influence of gender-role socialization, media use and sports participation on perceptions of gender-appropriate sports. J Sport Behav. 2009;32(2):207.

55.

Paechter

. Being Boys; Being Girls: Learning Masculinities And Femininities: Learning Masculinities and Femininities. UK: McGraw-Hill Education; 2007.

56.

Martins

Marques

Sarmento

Carreiro da Costa

. Adolescents’ perspectives on the barriers and facilitators of physical activity: a systematic review of qualitative studies. Health Educ Res. 2015;30(5):742–755.

57.

Allender

Cowburn

Foster

. Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies. Health Educ Res. 2006;21(6):826–835.

58.

Barnett

Morgan

van Beurden

Beard

. Perceived sports competence mediates the relationship between childhood motor skill proficiency and adolescent physical activity and fitness: a longitudinal assessment. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008;5(1):40.

59.

Loprinzi

Davis

. Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity. Prevent Med Rep. 2015;2:833–838.

60.

Brooks

Magnusson

. Taking part counts: adolescents’ experiences of the transition from inactivity to active participation in school-based physical education. Health Educ Res. 2006;21(6):872–883.

61.

Brooks

Magnusson

. Physical activity as leisure: the meaning of physical activity for the health and well-being of adolescent women. Health Care Women Int. 2007;28(1):69–87.

62.

Solmon

Lee

Belcher

Harrison

Wells

. Beliefs about gender appropriateness, ability, and competence in physical activity. J Teach Phys Educ. 2003;22(3):261.

63.

Cicović

Stojanović

Ruzic

Tanasković

. The impact of physical educational program content on elementary school students and their motor ability changes. Res Kinesiol. 2015;43(1):81–84.

64.

Beurden

Barnett

Zask

Dietrich

Brooks

Beard

. Can we skill and activate children through primary school physical education lessons? “Move it groove it”—a collaborative health promotion intervention. Prevent Med. 2003;36(4):493–501.

65.

Veličkovi¯c

. The influence of physical education classes on the changes in motor and specific-motor skills among elementary school students. Res Kinesiol. 2012;40(2):225–229.

66.

De Meester

Maes

Stodden

. Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence among adolescents: associations with motivation, physical activity, and sports participation. J Sports Sci. 2016;34(21):2027–2037.

67.

Kriemler

Meyer

Martin

van Sluijs

Andersen

Martin

. Effect of school-based interventions on physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents: a review of reviews and systematic update. Br J Sports Med. 2011;45(11):923–930.

68.

Ardoy

Fernandez-Rodriguez

Jimenez-Pavon

Castillo

Ruiz

Ortega

. A Physical Education trial improves adolescents’ cognitive performance and academic achievement: the EDUFIT study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(1):e52–e61.

69.

Wilkins

JLM

Graham

Parker

Westfall

Fraser

Tembo

. Time in the arts and physical education and school achievement. J Curric Stud. 2003;35(6):721–734.

70.

Trudeau

Shephard

. Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008;5:10.

71.

Hillman

Pontifex

Castelli

. Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics. 2014;134(4):e1063–e1071.

72.

Keeley

TJH

Fox

. The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and cognitive performance in children. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol. 2009;2(2):198–214.

73.

Kirby

Levin

Inchley

. Associations between the school environment and adolescent girls’ physical activity. Health Educ Res. 2011;27(1):101–114.

74.

Mitchell

Gray

Inchley

. ‘This choice thing really works … ’: changes in experiences and engagement of adolescent girls in physical education classes, during a school-based physical activity programme. Phys Educ Sport Pedagogy. 2015;20(6):593–611.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.19 MB

0.14 MB

0.09 MB