Career Identity and Life Satisfaction

Abstract

Identity formation is considered as a key factor in the conceptualization of life satisfaction (LS). Recent volatility in labor markets has negatively influenced college students’ LS and attending to the relationship between their career identity (CI) and LS has become important for career researchers and counselors. The purpose of this study is to examine the mediating effects of tolerance for uncertainty (TU) and emotions (positive affect [PA] and negative affect [NA]) in the relationship between CI development and LS. The hypotheses were tested among 199 college students in a prestigious South Korean university. The results indicate that TU and emotions mediate the effects of CI on LS. Based on these findings, career counselors are encouraged to help college students understand the synergy of TU and development of CI, which may increase their sense of LS.

Keywords

career identity life satisfaction tolerance for uncertainty affect Korean college student

As the labor market has rapidly shrunk due to the recent global economic recession, young adults across the world are encountering decreased employment rates. The International Labor Organization (2010) reports that young adults are more vulnerable to the economic crisis than senior workers because the labor market is not creating sufficient job opportunities for new entrants. According to a report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2010), 30–40% college graduates in the world are at risk for unemployment upon entering the world of work. Korea has been severely affected by this (Tak, 2012).

In conjunction with decreasing labor demand in Korea, competition for educational success partly contributes to the superfluous supply of college graduates. Many Korean parents invest in their children’s education by hiring private tutors and sending them to “cram schools”—profit-based tutorial institutes for extra study—to increase their standardized college examination scores. This educational situation has created “ipsi-jiok” (examination hell), a desperate struggle to succeed on the single college entrance examination that determines where students are able to attend college (Lee & Larson, 2000). Korea has one of the highest college entrance rates in the world. In 2012, 67.5% of Korean young adults had graduated from college (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation [UNESCO] Institute for Statistics, 2014). However, the number of highly educated job seekers has caused a new challenge in that the number of qualified job applicants far exceeds the availability of suitable jobs, creating competition. According to reports by the Department of Education and the Korean Educational Development Institute (2014), 41.7% of Korean college graduates still have not transitioned to full employment.

Due to difficulties obtaining entry-level jobs, many Korean college students experience job-seeking anxiety and distress about the future (Cho, 2008). Most college students come to anticipate a lack of employment opportunities and high competiveness in the labor market. Korean college students report that job competition and future career plans are their biggest personal stressors (Lee, Kang, & Yum, 2005). Uncertainty is a primary component of this psychological distress (Lee et al., 2005; Park, Kim, & Jung, 2009). Unceasing competition for educational success, job attainment, and uncertainty in young adulthood may lower Korean college students’ levels of life satisfaction (LS; Yang & Lea, 2012).

In the past decade, career researchers have also begun highlighting the necessity of identifying the antecedents of well-being in relation to career development (Lent & Brown, 2008; Walsh, 2008). Given the importance of career identity (CI) in LS, the purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between college students’ LS and CI development, and how tolerance for uncertainty (TU), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) mediate the links between them. The integration of LS was informed by several career researchers’ suggestions that the relationships between career development and clients’ well-being need to be understood (Hirschi, 2009, 2011, 2012; Walsh, 2008).

This research is relevant to both the United States and Korea because increased career uncertainty has led to increased numbers of Korean students studying abroad in the United States in order to avoid the Korean domestic job market and competitive educational systems. The Korean Ministry of Education (2014) reports that 32.2% of students in Korean colleges have studied in the United States. This study contributes to career counselors’ understanding of uncertainty as a common and impactful stressor in college students’ LS in both Korea and the United States.

CI, Affect, and LS

CI is defined as a stable self-concept about one’s career interest, values, beliefs, skills, and goals (Holland, Gottfredson, & Power, 1980). LS refers to one’s cognitive evaluations of his or her subjective well-being (Diener, 2000). The terms emotion and affect are used interchangeably in this study. PA includes feeling engaged, active, and alert (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). NA involves distress and unpleasantness that encompasses contempt or nervousness (Watson et al., 1988).

Identity theorists, such as Erikson (1968) believe that, like other identities in life, a CI can contribute to quality of life and well-being in emerging adulthood. CI is also a “structure or network of meanings” regarding the information about the world of work and the self (Meijers, 1998, p. 200). Congruent meaning structures can provide young adults with senses of purpose, personal growth, unity, and stability as a self and meaning in life (Cantor & Sanderson, 1999; Erickson, 1968) that are elements of LS.

Empirical studies have demonstrated that a crystalized CI is a predictor of LS (Hirschi, 2012; Uthayakumar, Schimmack, Hartung, Rogers, 2010). Researchers report that when personality factors are controlled, 7–13% of unique contribution to well-being is accounted for by the career decisiveness or identity variable (Hirschi, 2012; Uthayakumar et al., 2010). Researchers using diverse samples, such as German college students (e.g., Jaensch, Hirschi, & Freund, 2015) and Korean college students (e.g., Yang & Lea, 2012), also confirm this relationship. Specifically, in a study using German school graduate who are searching for their first jobs, Meeus, Deković, and Iedema (1997) report a positive correlation between CI and well-being, yet this relationship is not significant in graduates who have experienced unemployment. While having a strong CI does not ensure LS, taken together, this body of research suggests that attention to CI development has the potential to positively impact LS. Therefore, CI seems to be positively correlated with LS (Hypothesis 1).

Affect serves as an information source that enables individuals to determine their levels of LS as a whole (Kuppens, Realo, & Diener, 2008). A notion of well-being is comprised of affective and cognitive components (Diener, 1994). Affect tends to be influenced by automatic or unconscious responses, while cognitive evaluation on life entails deliberate and conscious judgment processes (Diener, 1994; Kuppens et al., 2008). Research confirms that affect has a causal effect on LS (Kuppen et al., 2008; Schwarz & Clore, 2007). PA and NA are significant predictors of LS among Korean college students (Hahn, Park, & Kim, 2004). The literature suggests that PA is positively correlated with LS (Hypothesis 2a) and negatively correlated with LS (Hypothesis 2b).

Researchers have demonstrated significant associations between traits and affect (Fergus & Wu, 2011). Specifically, researchers have argued that delayed or uncrystallized CI is often related to trait-like affect such as worry about the uncertain future (Saka, Gati, & Kelly, 2008). According to identity theorists, identity moratorium status is associated with high anxiety, and such negative emotions while shaping their identity are more commonly experienced by the young adults than other age groups (Clancy & Dollinger, 1993) due to their developmental tasks. Empirical studies have shown that a lack of CI or career decisiveness is associated with depression and anxiety (Reischel & Hirsch, 1989; Uthayakumar et al., 2010). Hammond, Lockman, and Boling (2010) report a positive correlation between CI and positive affectivity. Therefore, it may be reasonable to infer that a lack of career self-concept among young adults can intensify and extend their identity crises, which often entail negative feelings, whereas a clear self-identity produces feelings of stability and comfort. Additionally, CI was originally developed based on trait-and-factor perspectives (Savickas, 1985). According to personality theorists, affect experienced by emerging adult are prone to be part of their potential traits, yet the characteristics do not become stable until age 30 (McCrae & Costa, 1990). The study suggests, affect should be conceptualized as relatively stable, but open to change. Based on the literature, CI seems to be positively correlated with PA (Hypothesis 3a) and negatively correlated with NA (Hypothesis 3b).

TU as a Mediator

Studies have attempted to understand the remaining link between CI and well-being. Praskva, Creed, and Hood (2014) define career calling as identified personal goals and demonstrate that the relationships between career calling and LS, and perception of future employability are mediated by individuals’ self-regulatory mechanisms. Although self-regulatory mechanisms entail emotional elements, the mechanisms are heavily focused on controllability over embracement for uncertainty. A growing number of mental health researchers and practitioners have been emphasizing that control can cause psychological distress (e.g., Hoare, McIlveen, & Hamilton, 2012). For instance, college students often accept any career opportunities that come their way rather than tolerating an ambiguous period of time that may result in more valuable career opportunities (Trevor-Roberts, 2006). Students may focus on controlling uncertainty by achieving high grades and obtaining internship experiences to avoid unwanted feelings of career situations, although those experiences do not necessarily result in attaining meaningful career goals (Smith, James, Varnum, & Oyserman, 2014).

In response to the increasing importance of the ability to live with uncertainty, career researchers have developed theories, such as planned happenstance theory (Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz, 1999) or chaos theory of careers (CTC; Bright & Pryor, 2011) by reframing unexpected events as “inevitable” but also potentially “desirable.” In the study, TU is posited as a central mediator in the relationship among CI and PA/NA, which in turn influence LS. To use an operationalized term, the notion of TU is adopted from the definition of intolerance of uncertainty: the inclination to “react negatively to an uncertain event or situation” (Ladouceur, Gosselin, & Dugas, 2000, p. 934). To illustrate the conceptual link between CI and the role of TU, productive uncertainty (Smith et al., 2014) and CTC (Bright & Pryor, 2011; Pryor & Bright, 2003) are reviewed.

CI and TU

Smith, James, Varnum, and Oyserman (2014) conceptualize the central elements enabling individuals to productively adapt to overall uncertainty in life, including the management of self-uncertainty and acceptance of world uncertainty. Self-uncertainty is feeling uncertain about one’s skills and goals, and world uncertainty is the feeling that the path to the future is uncertain despite one’s attempts to control the career path (Smith et al., 2014). Taken together with identity development perspectives and productive uncertainty, young adults may foster their acceptance for uncertain worlds when their self-identity uncertainty is resolved or they are able to enact strong identities (Meijers, 1998).

CTC (Bright & Pryor, 2011; Pryor & Bright, 2003) can address the interaction between self-uncertainty and world uncertainty pertaining to career counseling contexts. According to CTC, helping clients (a) increase self-understanding about one’s life values, interest, and goals, (b) develop the ability to embrace and accept uncertainty, and (c) focus on long-term satisfaction of career processes are some of the crucial concepts in career development (McKay, Bright, & Pryor, 2005). A study on a CTC-based intervention shows that clients assigned to a chaos-based career intervention report longer lasting gains of satisfaction with careers than in a conventional trait-matching type of career counseling (McKay et al., 2005). McKay, Bright, and Pryor (2005) emphasize that effects of CI on long-term satisfaction occur because clients become more comfortable with the idea that their “career development would not always be planned, predictable, or logical” by embracing uncertainty in life (p. 110).

Some research has already demonstrated significant associations between CI and TU. Leong and Morris (1989) report that CI is associated with tolerance for ambiguity and CI may increase an individual’s adjustment. Kim (2010) also reports that Korean adolescents’ CI is correlated with TU (correlation coefficient, r = .34). This suggests that CI may have potential effects on TU by increasing adaptive and mature responses to career situations. Taken together, research evidence and conceptualization of self-uncertainty and world uncertainty suggest that CI (i.e., reduced self-uncertainty) seems to be associated with TU (Hypothesis 4).

TU and Affect

Budner (1962) notes that ambiguity tolerance can increase a range of positive emotions and decrease negative emotional reactions—an essential component of LS. Anxiety and psychological distress are known as primary emotional consequences of lacking TU (Krohne, 1993). A person who has TU is less likely to experience negative emotions since uncertain situations are not necessarily perceived as stressful. Empirical evidence indicates a correlation between a lack of TU and negative emotions (e.g., Fergus & Wu, 2011; Norr et al., 2013). This relationship is also found in Korean college student samples (Hwang & Kim, 2014).

Kupor, Tormala, and Norton (2014) suggest that TU may result in positive emotional experiences, such as a sense of interest and motivation toward potential. Bardi, Guerra, and Ramdeny (2009) report a negative correlation between uncertainty intolerance (low TU) and PA. Taken together, developing a clear career self-identity as ways of managing self-uncertainty can establish emotional capacity to embrace uncertainty about the world of work, which enhance the likelihood of experiencing PA and reduce the likelihood of experiencing NA. Based on the existing literature, TU seem to mediate the relationship between CI and LS via decreased NA (Hypothesis 5a) and increased PA (Hypothesis 5b).

Method

Participants

The initial sample consisted of 206 Korean college students enrolled at one of the prestigious universities in Korea. Seven participants failed to complete the survey, as more than 80% of their answers were unanswered. These seven incomplete surveys were removed from the data, yielding the final sample of 199 students. Among these responses, no missing values were observed. Of the total sample, 125 (62.8%) were women and 74 (37.2%) were men. Participants had a mean age of 20.85 years old (SD = 2.29). There were 56 (28.1%) freshmen, 64 (32.2%) sophomores, 40 (20.1%) juniors, 37 (18.6%) seniors, and 2 (1.0%) fifth years.

Measures

CI

The Vocational Identity (VI) Scale of the My Vocational Situation measures the participants’ sense of clarity about their stable patterns of career interests, goals, and abilities (Holland et al., 1980). The original VI Scale consisted of 18 items in a true/false response format. The Korean version of the VI Scale measures responses by a 4-point Likert-type scale with higher scores, suggesting more crystalized CI (Kim & Kim, 1997). In the study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient was .89 (Kim & Kim, 1997). In the present study, internal consistency is estimated to be .92 for the VI scores.

TU

The Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS) was developed to measure one’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to ambiguity (Freeston, Rhéaume, Letarte, Dugas, & Ladouceur, 1994). The IUS is a 27-item self-report measure and participants rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale the extent to statements represented themselves. To demonstrate the ability to tolerate uncertainty, the current study reversed the scores, which means that higher scores indicate a higher tolerance of uncertainty. The current study used the Korean version of the IUS validated by Choi (1997). Psychometric properties of the IUS indicate excellent internal consistency (Fresston et al., 1994). A study involving Korean college students reports the internal coefficient of .92 (Kim & Lee, 2012), and the current study reports .91.

PA and NA

Participants’ affect was assessed by the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988). The scale consists of 10 items of PA and 10 items of NA measured separately, as studies demonstrate that PA and NA have different dimensions (Watson et al., 1988). PANAS is reported to be correlated with trait factors (Fergus & Wu, 2011). Responses were measured by a 7-point Likert-type scale with higher scores indicating higher levels of each affect. The current study used the Korean version of PANAS (Lee, Kim, & Lee, 2003). In Lee, Kim, and Lee (2003), Cronbach’s α coefficient is .88 in the both subscales. In the current study, the coefficient is .93 in the NA subscale and .90 in the PA subscale.

LS

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) was used. The SWLS is a 5-item self-report measure designed to assess one’s general satisfaction with life (Diener et al., 1985). Items are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale, with higher scores indicating greater LS. Studies using the Korean SWLS demonstrate a Cronbach’s α coefficient of .82 (Yang & Lea, 2012). In the current study, the internal consistency coefficient is .85.

Procedures

After obtaining institutional review board approval, participants were recruited from several general psychology classes at a university in Seoul, South Korea. Data were collected through an online questionnaire, and participation was voluntary. The survey took 20–30 minutes. Participants received extra credit as an incentive.

Data Analysis

SPSS version 23 was used to conduct the descriptive statistics analysis, and SPSS Amos version 22 was utilized to test the mediation analyses. Item parceling was developed and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to examine adequacy of parcels and an acceptable measurement fit to the data. Structural equation modeling was performed to analyze path coefficients and test the magnitude and significance of mediation effects. Based on Preacher and Hayes’s (2008) suggestion, the bootstrapping procedure was conducted by forming 10,000 bootstrap samples from the original data set through random sampling with replacement.

Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of means, standard deviations, and correlations between all latent variables.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Variables.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5
1. Career identity	—
2. Life satisfaction	0.22**	—
3. Tolerance for uncertainty	0.38**	0.28**	—
4. Positive affect	0.16*	0.38**	0.22**	—
5. Negative affect	–0.24**	–0.31**	–0.43**	–0.05	—
M	2.31	4.43	2.63	4.53	3.20
SD	0.55	1.08	0.41	1.07	1.02

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Tests of the Measurement Model

Five latent variables were included in the measurement model. CI was represented by three 6-item parcels, TU was represented by two 6-item parcels, one 7-item parcel, and one 8-item parcel. PA and NA were represented by two 3-item parcels and one 4-item parcels, respectively. LS was represented by one 2-item parcel and one 3-item parcel. Criterions for the fit index were used as follows: comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) ≥ .90–.95 and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) values ≤ .08 represent an acceptable model fit (Hong, 2000; Hu & Bentler, 1995). Results of the CFA showed the measurement model demonstrated an adequately fit statistics for the five latent variables, χ²(80) = 164.846, p < .001; χ²/df = 2.06, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .07; TLI = .94, and contained no problematic cross loadings. All standardized loadings on the latent variables were significant (p < .01; range .70–.89), supporting the construct validity of the scales. As expected, the correlations among the latent variables were all significant (p < .001), except for the correlation between PA and NA.

Tests of the Structure Models

A default model without mediating variables was analyzed first. In the regression equation without the mediators, the standardized estimate of the causal path from CI to LS was significant (β = .219, p < .05, R² = .048). The result also indicated that 4.8% of the variance of LS is accounted for by the CI when there were no mediating variables. When mediators were added to the analyses, the hypothesized model showed an adequate fit: χ²(84) = 168.228, p < .001; χ²/df = 2.00, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .07; TLI = .95. The alternative model—a direct path from TU to LS added—also demonstrated an adequate fit: χ²(83) = 167.494, p < .001; χ²/df = 2.02, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .07; TLI = .95. A χ² test indicated that hypothesized model and alternative model are not statistically different: χ^{2 diff} = .734 at the α level .05. Considering the nonsignificant difference between the models and the parsimony of the model, the hypothesized model was chosen as a final model. The final model is supported by theoretical and empirical literature showing that TU often produces emotional reactions (e.g., Fergus & Wu, 2011; Freeston et al., 1994; Krohne, 1993), as well as LS is determined by affective experiences (e.g., Kuppen et al., 2008; Schwarz & Clore, 2007). Therefore, the alternative model that has a direct path between TU and LS without affect is less plausible. In the final model, significant paths were found from CI to TU (p < .001), from TU to PA (p < .05), and from PA to LS (p < .001), indicating that, as expected, higher levels of CI were associated with higher levels of TU, higher levels of PA, and higher levels of LS. Also, there was a significant path from TU to NA (p < .001) in addition to the aforementioned significant path coefficients, indicating that, higher levels of CI were associated with higher levels of TU, lower levels of NA, and higher levels of LS. However, the direct path from CI to LS became nonsignificant in the presence of the mediators (β = .090, p = .189), indicating full mediation (Table 2).

Table 2.

Direct and Indirect Effects and Bootstrap Analysis of 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) in the Final Model.

Effect	Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Path Coefficient	95% CI
Direct	Career identity	Tolerance for uncertainty	.421***	[.268, .543]
	Tolerance for uncertainty	Positive affect	.258**	[.107, .401]
	Tolerance for uncertainty	Negative affect	–.476***	[–.594, –.340]
	Positive affect	Life satisfaction	.362***	[.226, .511]
	Negative affect	Life satisfaction	–.321***	[–.464, –.205]
	Career identity	Life satisfaction	.090	[–.047, .233]
Indirect	Career identity	Life satisfaction	.105***	[.056, .170]

Note. Standardized path coefficients were reported. The nonsignificant direct path from career identity to life satisfaction was removed from the diagram.

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

Tests of Mediation

As illustrated in Table 2, bootstrapping results indicated that there were significant indirect effects from CI to LS mediated by TU, PA, and NA (95% confidence interval [CI] = [.056, .170], p < .001). As Preacher and Hayes (2008) recommended, the 95% CI for the mean indirect, which does not include zero, indicate a statistically significant indirect effect at the .05 α level. In the data, the observed mediating effect of TU and PA/NA in the relationship between CI and LS was significant, as the CIs did not include 0. Of the total effect of CI on LS, 3% of the variance is due to the indirect effect through the mediators. Figure 1 depicts the standardized path estimates of the final full mediation model with the nonsignificant path removed for clarity.

Figure 1.

Final model. The nonsignificant direct path from career identity to life satisfaction was removed from the diagram. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The goal of this study was to examine the role of TU and PA/NA in the relationship between CI and LS among Korean college students. First, as advocated by career researchers (Hirschi, 2012; Walsh, 2008), this study offers insight regarding the role of career development in well-being. Second, it explores—as suggested by researchers (e.g., Saka et al., 2008; Pryor & Bright, 2003; Rice, 2014)—aspects of uncertainty in career processes previously studied insufficiently.

Hypotheses 1 and 3, which predicted that CI and PA/NA would be correlated with LS, were supported. These results are consistent with previous research (e.g., Jaensch et al., 2015; Uthayakumar et al., 2010; Yang & Lea, 2012) and confirm that CI is an important factor in Korean college students’ LS and is associated with PA/NA. These are important findings, as they add to the growing research that has examined college students’ emotional and cognitive well-being when they are in the process of achieving their career development goals. Consistent with the accumulating body of evidence suggesting that affect is an important construct for well-being and often serves as a determinant of LS (Diener, 1994; Kuppens et al., 2008), the findings further support Hypothesis 2 that affective well-being is associated with cognitive well-being in the sample.

Consistent with prior research (Kim, 2009), CI was found to be associated with TU (Hypothesis 4). This result is important for understanding how young adults’ identity development tasks can be associated with their degree of maturity in responding to life’s inevitable uncertainty. Focusing on high levels of decisiveness about a specific career options to remove uncertainty can result in high levels of discomfort when their chosen career is not congruent with their self-identity (Smith et al., 2014). This may suggest that CI functions as a center of self-agency that enables the self to live in harmony with uncertain career environments.

The findings support Hypothesis 5, which tested uncertainty for tolerance as a central mediator and PA/NA as subsequent mediators in the relationship between CI and LS. These results may mean that CI is associated with tolerance for the uncertain nature of the world, which in turn, increases pleasant feelings, such as engagement, interest, or enthusiasm, and decreases anxiety and distress, which also enhances a sense of LS. As research suggests, increased TU results in decreased worry (Dugas & Ladouceur, 2000), and it may be possible that TU created by CI buffers an individual’s tendency to negatively react to uncertain situations.

The results may be contradictory to the notion of control (e.g., Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) in the sense that constant efforts and attempts to control the self and the world of work may not necessarily enhance affective well-being (Hoare et al., 2012). Persistence or self-discipline to control uncertainty can cause emotional exhaustion (e.g., Kuhn, Goldberg, & Compton, 2009) which might reduce resources from other areas important to LS. Instead, fostering TU in conjunction with stable CI may be more functional in reducing negative emotions originating from the side effects of control as well as maintaining positive emotions. Another possible explanation of the observed relationships is that clients’ TU may increase their openness and flexibility to their career environment, to promote ongoing learning about change, and help them focus on purposeful career behaviors (McKay et al., 2005). In other words, if individuals are able to incorporate their learned lessons into their CI, they may feel a sense of fulfillment and growth when they learn from either positive or negative uncertain situations.

These findings contribute to the understanding of the CTC. Pryor and Bright (2003) believe complexity, change, chance, and constructiveness interact in relation to individuals’ responses to the world of work. Adaptive responses are more crucial than choosing one specific career (i.e., career decidedness) in the current world of work (Pryor & Bright, 2003). In this regard, CI is substantial to guiding their life directions, while allowing them to embrace the fact that uncertainty will always exist. These findings identify mechanisms suggesting that CI is crucial in developing adaptive responses to uncertainty, as well as satisfaction, which are key goals for the CTC-based services.

Practice and Research Implications

The findings show that the capacity to tolerate uncertainty is important in career development processes, as evidenced by recent career intervention models and empirical findings (e.g., Kim & Lee, 2012; MaKey et al., 2005). Thus, the availability of specific career resources and services, combined with adaptability-based approaches, may enhance students’ mental well-being (e.g., Hirschi, 2012; Mckay et al., 2005). Career counselors can discuss the role of self-awareness about clients’ career values and goals, which plays an anchor role in navigating unpredictable labor markets and in preparing for possible unplanned events in the future. Instead of focusing solely on career decision-making, constructing and reconstructing CI while continuously exploring alternative career options, activities, and resources may enhance clients’ satisfaction with their lives and careers ( Mckay et al., 2005; Miller, 1995).

The full mediation effects of uncertainty tolerance and emotions in the relationship between CI and LS indicate that developing cognitive flexibility to embrace world uncertainty, by actively managing career-related self-uncertainty, is an important mechanism through which college students can attain LS. These findings extend knowledge on antecedents of college students’ well-being and have important implications for both college student mental health professionals and career counselors.

This study has specific implications for career counselors providing services to Korean students. When working with Korean students with high job-seeking stresses, career counselors should assess their CI as well as career activities they are engaged in. Individuals with a lack of TU often constantly seek external information and reassurance to reduce feelings of worry (Tallis, Eysenck, & Mathews, 1992) rather than reflecting on their identities. In fact, Korean college students are preoccupied with “spec (an abbreviation of specification) craze,” characterized as the attendance of or transfer to prestigious universities, the achievement of high grades, the obtainment of high English scores, and the experiences of studying abroad, as the most important ways to cope with career uncertainty (Jo & Kim, 2014). These experiences do not necessarily result in long-term satisfaction because Korean students sometimes experience burnout, anxiety due to comparison to peers, or financial burden in affording extra career development activities (e.g., Kim & Lee, 2012; Yoo & Shin, 2013). Without thinking about a bigger picture of themselves in a career context, the development of career “spec” may not reduce vulnerability to uncertainty in their careers.

These results may help career counselors working with students in other countries, where similar college admission systems and competition for jobs exist. Tien, Lin, and Chen (2005) report that Taiwanese students are less likely to spend time exploring their interests, values, and goals due to score-based education and feeling vulnerable to uncertainty. Future research should be conducted to generalize the findings to diverse populations. It should be noted, however, that students with resources, such as finances or education, may be more likely to take advantage of uncertainty in order to achieve positive career outcomes and buffer consequences stemming from negative uncertain situations (Rice, 2014). Application of TU and CI should be considered with a full understanding of clients’ available resources.

Limitations

The study uses cross-sectional data, which means that the path analyses should be interpreted with caution, as reverse models may fit as well. Future studies using longitudinal data should examine the causal relationships between the variables to confirm the results. As the focus of the study was understanding the serial mediating role of TU and affect in the relationship between CI and LS, discriminant mechanisms of PA and NA were not examined. Future research could expand on the roles of different affect. Lastly, the model was tested using Korean students from a prestigious university, which limits generalization regarding diverse social class and educational backgrounds.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that TU can mediate the relationship between CI development and LS among Korean college students. This relationship is noteworthy because TU could buffer negative emotions and enhance positive emotions if students have a clear CI. Career counselors and researchers are in a position to conduct more research about the mechanisms of uncertainty regarding how CI development processes can be effectively integrated into a college student’s mental well-being. Uncertainty may appear to be a problematic area when it comes to dealing with a career; however, CI development could promote an individuals’ flexibility to adjust to an unpredictable labor market and career trajectory. Further efforts to implement well-researched career counseling approaches, combined with elements of uncertainty, will likely enhance college student emotional well-being and LS.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Bardi

Guerra

V. M.

Ramdeny

S. D.

(2009). Openness and ambiguity intolerance: Their differential relations to well-being in the context of an academic life transition. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 219–223. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.03.003

Bright

J. E. H.

Pryor

R. G. L.

(2011). The chaos theory of careers. Journal of Employment Counseling, 48, 163–166. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1920.2011.tb01104.x

Budner

N. Y.

(1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable1. Journal of Personality, 30, 29–50. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1962.tb02303.x

Cantor

Sanderson

C. A.

(1999). Life task participation and well-being: The importance of taking part in daily life. In Kahneman

Diener

Schwarz

(Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 230–243). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

Cho

K.-P.

(2008). A study of development and validation of the job-seeking anxiety test for university students. Korean Journal of Educational Research, 46, 53–75.

Choi

H.-K.

(1997). The dysfunctional effects on chronic worry on problem-solving. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, South Korea.

Clancy

S. M.

Dollinger

S. J.

(1993). Identity, self, and personality: Identity status and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3, 227–245. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0303_2

Department of Education and Korean Educational Development Institute. (2014). Employment of higher education graduates statistics. Retrieved from http://kess.kedi.re.kr/eng

Diener

(1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, 31, 103–157. doi:10.1007/BF01207052

10.

Diener

(2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.34

11.

Diener

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

12.

Dugas

M. J.

Ladouceur

(2000). Treatment of GAD: Targeting intolerance of uncertainty in two types of worry. Behavior Modification, 24, 635–657. doi:10.1177/0145445500245002

13.

Erikson

(1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.

14.

Fergus

T. A.

K. D.

(2011). Searching for specificity between cognitive vulnerabilities and mood and anxiety symptoms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 446–458. doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9245-6

15.

Freeston

M. H.

Rhéaume

Letarte

Dugas

M. J.

Ladouceur

(1994). Why do people worry? Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 791–802. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90048-5

16.

Hahn

D.-W.

Park

J.-H.

Kim

K.-H.

(2004). Effects of self-disclosure and rumination about stressful life event and emotional experiences on physical health. The Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 99–130.

17.

Hammond

M. S.

Lockman

J. D.

Boling

(2010). A test of the tripartite model of career indecision of Brown and Krane for African Americans incorporating emotional intelligence and positive affect. Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 161–176. doi:10.1177/1069072709354201

18.

Hirschi

(2009). Career adaptability development in adolescence: Multiple predictors and effect on sense of power and life satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74, 145–155. doi:https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.002

19.

Hirschi

(2011). Vocational identity trajectories: Differences in personality and development of well-being. European Journal of Personality, 26, 2–12. doi:10.1002/per.812

20.

Hirschi

(2012). Vocational identity as a mediator of the relationship between core self-evaluations and life and job satisfaction. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 60, 622–644. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00450.x

21.

Hoare

P. N.

McIlveen

Hamilton

(2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) as a career counselling strategy. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 12, 171–187. doi:10.1007/s10775-012-9224-9

22.

Holland

J. J.

Gottfredson

D. C.

Power

P. G.

(1980). Some diagnostic scales for research in decision making and personality: Identity, information, and barriers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1191–1200. doi:10.1037/h0077731

23.

Hong

S.-H.

(2000). The criteria for selecting appropriate fit indices in structural equation modeling and their rationales. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19, 161–177.

24.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1995). Evaluating model fit. In Hoyle

R. H.

(Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

25.

Hwang

Y.-J.

Kim

M.-H.

(2014). The correlation of intolerance on uncertainty, locus of control, career search efficacy, and negative emotional career search experiences. The Korean Psychological Association Annual Conference Proceeding, 2014, 327–327.

26.

International Labor Organization. (2010). The impact of the economic and financial crisis on youth employment: Measures for labor market recovery in the European Union, Canada and the United States (No. 462129). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org

27.

Jaensch

V. K.

Hirschi

Freund

P. A.

(2015). Persistent career indecision over time: Links with personality, barriers, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 91, 122–133. doi:https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.09.010

28.

S.-I.

Kim

E.-A.

(2014). The study on the difference of awareness about job requirements (SPEC) between human resources manager and university student preparing for job placement. Journal of Employment and Career, 4, 41–61.

29.

Kim

K.-H.

Kim

B.-H.

(1997). Career decision level and career preparation behavior of the college students. The Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 9, 311–333.

30.

Kim

K.-K.

(2009). The effect of self-efficacy, intolerance of uncertainty on career preparation behavior and career decision level: The mediating effects of career achievement goals. Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychology, 21, 501–519.

31.

Kim

K.-S.

(2010). Effect of locus of control and intolerance of uncertainty on school adjustment: Vocational identity as a mediator. Unpublished master’s thesis, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea.

32.

Kim

N.-R.

Lee

K.-H.

(2012). The relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and perceived career barriers: Testing the mediating effects of social comparison orientation and fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 31, 111–134.

33.

Korean Ministry of Education. (2014). 2014 Statistics of Korean students studying abroad. Retrieved from http://www.moe.go.kr

34.

Krohne

H. W.

(1993). Vigilance and cognitive avoidance as concepts in coping research. In Krohne

H. W.

(Ed.), Attention and avoidance (pp. 19–50). Toronto, Gottingen: Hogrefe & Huber.

35.

Kuhn

Goldberg

Compton

(2009). Tolerance for uncertainty, burnout, and satisfaction with the career of emergency medicine. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 54, 106–113.

36.

Kupor

D. M.

Tormala

Z. L.

Norton

M. I.

(2014). The allure of unknown outcomes: Exploring the role of uncertainty in the preference for potential. Journal of experimental Social Psychology, 55, 210–216. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.07.004

37.

Kuppens

Realo

Diener

(2008). The role of positive and negative emotions in life satisfaction judgment across nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 66–75. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.66

38.

Ladouceur

Gosselin

Dugas

M. J.

(2000). Experimental manipulation of intolerance of uncertainty: a study of a theoretical model of worry. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38, 933–941. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00133-3

39.

Lee

D. H.

Kang

Yum

(2005). A qualitative assessment of personal and academic stressors among Korean college students: An exploratory study. College Student Journal, 39, 442–448.

40.

Lee

H.-H.

Kim

E.-J.

Lee

M.-K.

(2003). A validation study of Korean positive and negative affect schedule: The PANAS scales. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 935–946.

41.

Lee

Larson

(2000). The Korean ‘examination hell’: Long hours of studying, distress, and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 249–271. doi:10.1023/a:1005160717081

42.

Lent

R. W.

Brown

S. D.

(2008). Social cognitive career theory and subjective well-being in the context of work. Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 6–21. doi:10.1177/1069072707305769

43.

Leong

F. T.

Morris

(1989). Assessing the construct validity of Holland, Daiger, and Power’s measure of vocational identity. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 22, 117–125.

44.

McCrae

R. R.

Costa

P. T.

Jr . (1990). Personality in adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford.

45.

McKay

Bright

J. E. H.

Pryor

R. G. L.

(2005). Finding order and direction from chaos: A comparison of chaos career counseling and trait matching counseling. Journal of Employment Counseling, 42, 98–112. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1920.2005.tb00904.x

46.

Meeus

Dekovic

Iedema

(1997). Unemployment and identity in adolescence: A social comparison perspective. Career Development Quarterly, 45, 369–380. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.1997.tb00540.x

47.

Meijers

(1998). The development of a career identity. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 20, 191–207.

48.

Miller

M. J.

(1995). A case for uncertainty in career counseling. Counseling and Values, 39, 162–168. doi:10.1002/j.2161-007x.1995.tb00938.x

49.

Mitchell

K. E.

Levin

Krumboltz

J. D.

(1999). Planned happenstance: Constructing unexpected career opportunities. Journal of Counseling and Development, 77, 115–124. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1999.tb02431.x

50.

Norr

A. M.

Oglesby

M. E.

Capron

D. W.

Raines

A. M.

Korte

K. J.

Schmidt

N. B.

(2013). Evaluating the unique contribution of intolerance of uncertainty relative to other cognitive vulnerability factors in anxiety psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 151, 136–142. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.063

51.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2010). Rising youth unemployment during the crisis: how to prevent negative long-term consequences on a generation? (OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 106). Paris, France: Author. doi:10.1787/5kmh79zb2mmv-en

52.

Park

M.-J.

Kim

J.-H.

Jung

M.-S.

(2009). A qualitative study on the stress of university students for preparing employment. The Korea Journal of Counseling, 10, 417–435.

53.

Praskova

Creed

P. A.

Hood

(2014). Self-regulatory processes mediating between career calling and perceived employability and life satisfaction in emerging adults. Journal of Career Development, 42, 86–101. doi:10.1177/0894845314541517

54.

Preacher

Hayes

(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.1177/1069072707305763

55.

Pryor

R. G. L.

Bright

J. E. H.

(2003). Order and chaos: A twenty-first century formulation of careers. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55, 121–128. doi:10.1080/00049530412331312984

56.

Reischel

T. M.

Hirsch

B. J.

(1989). Identity commitments and coping with a difficult developmental transition. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 55–69.

57.

Rice

(2014). Incorporation of chance into career development theory and research. Journal of Career Development, 41, 445–463. doi:10.1177/0894845313507750

58.

Saka

Gati

Kelly

K. R.

(2008). Emotional and personality-related aspects of career-decision-making difficulties. Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 403–424. doi:10.1177/1069072708318900

59.

Savickas

M. L.

(1985). Identity in vocational development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 27, 329–337. doi:10.1016/0001-8791(85)90040-5

60.

Savickas

M. L.

Porfeli

E. J.

(2012). Career adapt-abilities scale: Construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 661–673. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.011

61.

Schwarz

Clore

G. L.

(2007). Feelings and phenomenological experiences. In E. T. Higgins

Kruglanski

(Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 385–407). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

62.

Smith

G. C.

James

L. E.

Varnum

M. E. W.

Oyserman

(2014). Give up or get going? Productive uncertainty in uncertain times. Self and Identity, 13, 681–700. doi:10.1080/15298868.2014.919958

63.

Tak

(2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale—Korea Form: Psychometric properties and construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 712–715. doi:https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.008

64.

Tallis

Eysenck

Mathews

(1992). A questionnaire for the measurement of nonpathological worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 161–168. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(92)90038-q

65.

Tien

H.-L. S.

Lin

C.-H.

Chen

S.-C.

(2005). A grounded analysis of career uncertainty perceived by college students in Taiwan. The Career Development Quarterly, 54, 162–174. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2005.tb00148.x

66.

Trevor-Roberts

(2006). Are you sure? The role of uncertainty in career. Journal of Employment Counseling, 43, 98–116.

67.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2014). Asian universities on the rise: New findings on strategies designed to boost rankings and research. Higher education in Asia. Retrieved July 23, 2015, from http://www.uis.unesco.org

68.

Uthayakumar

Schimmack

Hartung

P. J.

Rogers

J. R.

(2010). Career decidedness as a predictor of subjective well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 196–204. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.07.002

69.

Walsh

W. B.

(2008). Introduction: Special issue on career theory, assessment and subjective well-being. Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 3–5. doi:10.1177/1069072707309692

70.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

Tellegen

(1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi:https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063

71.

Yang

Lea

(2012). Mediational effects of career identity on the association between career calling and life satisfaction for college students. The Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 24, 51–68.

72.

Yoo

G.-S.

Shin

D.-W.

(2013). Effects of stress coping styles on academic burnout and employment stress among undergraduate students. Korean Journal of Counseling, 14, 3849–3869.