Patterns of Voluntary Participation in Membership Associations

Forms of Participation

Participation in voluntary associations varies from active engagement such as committee membership or volunteering, to passive involvement, whereby the member pays their fees but remains a silent member. Active members can be divided into core and peripheral roles (Pearce, 1993), with core volunteers taking on committee roles and often volunteering within the organization for many years. In contrast, peripheral volunteers are steady contributors but less committed than core volunteers and take on occasional roles or assist for a finite period of time (Cuskelly, Hoye, & Auld, 2006). Researchers refer to these core volunteers as “stalwarts” (Nichols, 2005), “champions” or “activists” (Jones, 2002) and peripheral volunteers as “flexible workers” (Jones, 2002).

There are clearly differences between passive and active membership of associations, however, patterns of membership are not always dichotomous. Indeed, intensity of participation in voluntary associations is rarely examined (Hooghe, 2003). Hooghe (2003), for example, differentiates between nonmembers, former members, passive members who pay their dues and active members who participated in at least one activity during the past 12 months and are members of the board, whereas Garcia-Mainar and Marcuello (2007) distinguish between members, participants, donors, and volunteers. As such, we can envisage intensity of membership falling along a spectrum from passive to active (Wollebaek & Selle, 2002), with entirely passive at one extreme, simply paying the subscription and extremely active at the other, with the member taking on a major voluntary role such as chair of the association. In between, there are different levels of active and passive participation.

Few studies have examined these different forms of engagement. An exception is in the context of voluntary sports clubs, where two studies have identified that stalwarts take on committee roles and ensure the continued operation of the club (Cuskelly et al., 2006; Nichols, 2005) whereas the most passive members pay and play, without contributing anything more than their membership fee. Other membership associations may have even more passive members, who pay their membership fee but do not use any membership benefits. It is this form of membership which is referred to as “checkbook” activism. Although core or stalwart volunteers have received attention from researchers, there has been little examination of “pay and play” or totally passive members; this study aims to fill this gap by examining members that participate intently in contrast to other members that participate very little. Passive members may be the result of what Putnam (1995) describes as tertiary associations, that is, professionalized membership associations with paid staff, where members only have limited opportunities for active involvement (Garcia-Mainar & Marcuello, 2007; Lansley, 1996). Not all voluntary associations, therefore, enable all forms of participation by members and we expect that there will be variation in both participation and motivation for active involvement with larger, national membership associations compared to smaller organizations.

Participation in voluntary membership associations can vary, therefore in type, intensity, in the role that the individual chooses to take, for example as a committee member and also in scope as participation will depend on the size and governance of the association itself. In addition, many members have multiple memberships, within which they participate in different ways and intensities. Over time, their participation in one particular association may also vary. Past studies use event history analysis to examine the different memberships held by individuals (Hooghe, 2003; McPherson & Rotolo, 1997; Rotolo, 2000) and although event history analysis provides data on an individual’s changing membership portfolio over a period of time, it does not capture the nature or intensity of these memberships. In addition, event history analyses of voluntary association memberships offer little explanation of why individuals participate in membership associations in different ways.

Influences on Participation

Researchers examine a range of motivational factors related to voluntary association membership. Wollebaek and Selle (2003) find that level of participation is related to the individual’s motive for joining the association. Active members seek personal fulfillment and social contact whereas more passive members such as pay and players want to influence decisions and gain membership benefits. Motivation for participation in voluntary associations has been classified as Material, Purposive, and Solidary (Caldwell & Andereck, 1994; King & Walker, 1992). Material motives are the tangible benefits of being a member, such as discounts and information; Purposive motives are based on global concerns, such as civic responsibility; and Solidary benefits are those derived from social interaction and group status. Although material benefits are reported as the least important reasons for becoming involved in a voluntary association (Caldwell & Andereck, 1994), it would seem likely that passive members are more motivated by these as Slater (2003a) reports in a large UK museum. While in contrast, we would expect active members to be motivated by solidary and purposive benefits.

Although there has been little research on motivation for membership association participation generally (for example, Caldwell & Andereck, 1994; Slater, 2003a), researchers seek to theorize motivation to volunteer in associations. Studies examine why individuals volunteer and also analyzes their different time contributions. Leisure researchers (for example, Orr, 2006; Stebbins, 2007) examine volunteerism as a form of leisure, which may be appropriate for membership associations. Leisure volunteering can be casual, project based or serious (Stebbins, 2007). Serious leisure demands a sustained commitment from the individual, whereas project-based leisure volunteering is still demanding but of fixed duration. This differentiation of participation level with time commitment mirrors Handy, Brodeur, and Cnaan’s spectrum (2006) of volunteer participation in a series of festivals where they distinguish between long-term committed volunteers, habitual episodic volunteers (regular volunteering for a fixed period of time), and episodic volunteers. Although all three groups display similar motivations, habitual episodic volunteers are often prevented from becoming long-term volunteers because of time and other constraints.

Barriers to volunteering, therefore, have an impact on the ways in which individuals can engage with voluntary associations. Ringuet, Cuskelly, Zakusand, and Auld (2008) compare core and peripheral volunteers in sports clubs and find that level of engagement is due to structural factors, rather than motivation. In their study, the participation of peripheral volunteers is limited by barriers such as increased family commitments and the perceived high workload for core volunteers. These barriers reflect those reported in studies of volunteering more generally (Low, Butt, Ellis Paine, & Davis Smith, 2007; Musick & Wilson, 2008), thus level of participation in a membership association may not be a matter of choice. A further barrier can be religiosity, which can impact on participation in secular membership associations, as the religious organization demands all the time and commitment the individual has available for other associations (Schwadel, 2005). Multiple memberships can similarly affect participation levels, as active participation in one association may limit active involvement in others. Finally, Cress, McPherson, and Rotolo (1997) argue that intensity of participation has a negative correlation with length of membership. That is, long-standing core volunteers are more at risk of burn out than peripheral volunteers or passive members.

This review shows that engagement in membership associations is affected by a range of factors. These include the individual member’s motivation, the time they have available, the cost of participating, physical ability, proximity to the association’s headquarters, their engagement with other membership associations, and also the opportunities for participation within the association. Therefore, an understanding of the membership associations themselves is also needed.

Extent and Patterns of Voluntary Involvement in Heritage Associations

A total of 53% of respondents can be described as passive members: they belong to, but do not volunteer for heritage associations. The remaining 47% of respondents can be described as core or peripheral volunteers having volunteered for the association and/or the affiliated heritage site. As identified in Phase 1, member volunteers are involved in a range of activities, including fundraising, tour guiding, and administration.

A total of 18% of respondents have served on the association’s committee. The majority of these (77%) have held one role, but 22% have taken on two or more roles. Many of this core group of volunteers is also long-term volunteers with 45% having volunteered for at least 6 years. In this case, our sample has different characteristics from those of wider studies for example, Cress et al. (1997) report that active volunteers move across different organizations. In fact, only a small proportion (17%) of our respondents have lapsed a membership in the past 5 years. Rather, our respondents accumulate memberships building their portfolio over time.

Of committee members, 83% currently volunteer for the site as well as the committee. These are Nichols’ (2005) “stalwart” volunteers. 28% of respondents’ have volunteered for the site only and could be described as peripheral volunteers. The remainder has never volunteered (53%).We also explore individuals’ volunteering in other associations to better understand their participation across their current membership portfolio. Just more than a quarter (26%) of respondents currently volunteer for other, nonheritage organizations and associations and 18% have in the past, a total of 44% of the sample.

Forms of Membership

As anticipated, the data reveals a range of types and levels of participation across our sample. Our respondents could be classified into four different categories depending on their level of engagement. These categories include three already identified in the literature, core volunteers, peripheral volunteers, and pay and players. We also identify a new fourth group, which we called substitutors. Core volunteers are key volunteers and committee members (Jones, 2002; Nichols, 2005), often taking on a range of roles within the association. Many core volunteers are founder members of their associations and they are essential to the voluntary membership associations who rely entirely on volunteers to operate. Peripheral volunteers (Cuskelly et al., 2006) are less committed than core volunteers and may take on a committee role for a short time after attending an AGM, as one former committee member comments:

I think I just went on to the committee for a while. I can’t remember how I ended up being chairman. I think they were looking for volunteers again one year and I went along to the AGM again and they asked me. (Peripheral volunteer)

Peripheral members may not have the time to become core members or they may have multiple memberships, which limits their involvement in other membership associations.

We also identify a new category of more passive member: substituters. Substituters are those members who are currently unable to volunteer due to other commitments or lack of geographical proximity to the site and show their support in other ways:

We live here about 6 or 7 months of the year and the rest of the time we live abroad . . . So that limits our ability to really get involved hands-on, so as an alternative almost, I contribute to various things financially. (Substituter)

Finally, pay and players are members who have joined primarily for the benefits and their only involvement is to make use of the facilities and activities offered by the association.

Motivational Factors Influencing Participation

Motivation also has a significant impact on individuals’ participation in membership associations, as previously identified (Wollebaek & Selle, 2003).The data reveals four groups of members based on their motive for participation. The first three groups, cause servers, socialisers, and benefits seekers, correspond to the three groups of motivations identified in a previous study: Purposive, Solidary, and Material (Caldwell & Andereck, 1994). A fourth group also emerges within our sample. We label this group “hobbyists” as they were primarily interested in the subject or site supported by the association.

Hobbyists include respondents who have a life-long interest in the subject represented by the association. Some hobbyists describe themselves as “loners” but they join the association as it enables them to pursue their interest. Hobbyists are most likely to belong to more than one membership association linked to their area of interest.

I was coming towards retirement . . . and I thought it would be very interesting if I made some plans to occupy my leisure time. The exercise was to establish myself as a guide to the museum . . . with what has been a lifelong interest in aviation that was the natural direction to take. (Hobbyist)

Cause servers are primarily concerned with supporting and protecting a particular site, often one perceived to be under threat or a site in their community. Cause servers are purposive in their membership and more community minded than other members.

It’s a fifty acre of woodland and it’s bang in the middle of the area and there has been threats of development in the past and I don’t want anything to happen to it. It’s such an asset that people don’t really appreciate it here. (Cause server)

Socialisers are less intrinsically motivated by the subject of the association, rather they are interested in being part of a group, building relationships with other members, or are using their volunteering to have social interaction, for example, those recently retired and/or widowed or single. Socialisers also include people who have recently moved to a new area and are looking to become involved in their local community.

You understand my motivation for joining? What I now get out of it is I’ve got a lot more friends, we have a good time at the meetings, we have a good time at the committee meetings, I get to go on outings. (Socialiser)

Finally, benefits seeker members are interested in the benefits they derive from membership and most benefits seekers have limited participation in the association, preferring to be pay and players. These four different forms of participation and four motivations are compared against each other in Table 4, which shows the number of participants within each cluster.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 4.

A Matrix of Participation in Membership Associations

	Core volunteers	Peripheral volunteers	Substituters	Pay and players
Hobbyists (Self-interest)	10 respondents	8 respondents	2 respondents
Cause servers (Purposive)	5 respondents	3 respondents	9 respondents	1 respondent
Socialisers (Solidary)	2 respondents	5 respondents	1 respondent
Benefits seekers (Material)				6 respondents

Note: n = 52.

Table 4 also reveals tentative patterns among the different clusters. Hobbyist members, those with the greatest personal interest, engage more with the association than the other groupings, with most members within the core or peripheral volunteer clusters. Perhaps, membership associations which attract hobbyists offer more opportunities for active participation in the association. Associations which attract substitute members may offer these members the opportunity to support the cause as they cannot do so directly and choose to support by proxy through the membership association, what Putnam (2000) calls “checkbook activism.” Level of participation, however, does not necessarily reflect the level of support a member feels for an association. Members may be highly committed to a site but unable to actively participate in the association.

Socialisers were more likely to be peripheral volunteers, so they are either less committed than core volunteers or peripheral volunteering meets their needs for social interaction and friendship. All pay and players are benefits seekers and all benefits-seeker respondents are pay and players, as would be expected given the nature of pay and play membership as a means of making use of the benefits with limited participation in the association. Of course, the sample size for Phase 3 of this study means that the relative size of each group in Table 4 is indicative.

Respondents’ reasons for joining the associations in their membership portfolio also vary along with their level of participation. For example, we sampled Friend A through the Friends’ group of a cathedral. She is also a member of the patrons of the cathedral, which fundraises for the cathedral. Friend A is a regular church goer and spirituality is important to her. She belongs to her local church and volunteers as a chaplain at a nearby heritage attraction, a ruined abbey. She has a keen interest in literature and is a member of two associations which support the former homes of authors. She is a pay and play member of two large heritage membership associations which offer free entry to members. Her main passion is, however, a children’s charity, in which she has been active for 50 years and she is currently secretary of their local branch. The framework in Table 4 enables us to compare an individual member’s, such as Friend A’s, different participation levels across their memberships. This is presented in Table 5.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 5.

Friend A’s Pattern of Participation in Membership Associations

	Core volunteer	Peripheral volunteer	Substituter	Pay and player
Hobbyist (Self-interest)			Two literary voluntary associations
Cause server (Purposive)	Children’s charity	Ruined abbey	Cathedral friends group
Socialiser (Solidary)			Cathedral patrons
Benefits seeker (Material)				National Trust, English Heritage (both national multiple site heritage membership associations)

Other Factors Influencing or Inhibiting Participation

We have identified forms of participation and clusters of motivation which influence membership association participation. Our interviews reveal other factors, which influence participation across an individual’s membership portfolio. First, there are differences in the way members view small, local associations compared to large, national associations, for example, the location of the site and its proximity to the respondent. Local and smaller sites are perceived as needing more support, whether this was voluntary support from core volunteers or financial support from substituters. One respondent describes their membership of two associations supporting local cathedrals:

I realise that these larger buildings like [the local] Cathedral are struggling financially to maintain the fabric of the building . . . I do have a regular financial donation in favour of the cathedral. (Substituter)

Religious sites clearly appeal to church goers. Rather than leading to greater participation, however, religiosity can reduce the respondents’ participation in membership associations outside of their church and church goers are often involved in voluntary activities at their church, as noted by Schwadel (2005).

Participation within the membership association depends on the time respondents’ had available (Ringuet et al., 2005). Core and peripheral volunteers in our sample are mostly retired, which contrasts with previous research where participation is higher among those in their middle years (Garcia-Mainar & Marcuello, 2007; Rotolo, 2000).The profile of our interviewees does correspond with that of heritage volunteers more generally, who are typically older, retired individuals (Holmes, 2003). Retirement can be both a facilitator and a barrier to participation, with older members having more time but facing mobility and health issues, which results in their being less active. Respondents in paid work are more likely to be substituters as they have limited time to commit as volunteers. One substituter is a keen member of the local cemetery membership association but cannot participate with Saturday clean-up days as it is the busiest day in her shop.

The type of membership association also impacts on respondents’ involvement. The larger, national associations are more likely to attract pay and players. First, respondents felt that these larger heritage sites were less in need of their time. Second, the larger associations often offer better benefits and are more attractive to pay and players. Finally, many larger membership associations employ professional staff and may not offer as many opportunities for volunteer participation. This last factor could be perceptual rather than actual, as even the largest associations in this study involve their members as volunteers in some capacity. The size of the membership association could also make it appear difficult to become an active participant, with one peripheral volunteer commenting on a larger membership association:

The Friends of course are more remote because they’re much bigger organizations so unless you’re part of the “inner circle” then you’re not so involved inevitably. (Peripheral volunteer)

Thus, aside from motivation, the key factors which influence participation in heritage supporter associations include life stage (age, time available), geography (proximity to the site), size of membership association (opportunities for engagement), scope of association and site (national/local), religiosity and scheduling of volunteer activities, and other personal commitments.