A Multilevel,Emergent Journey to Unpack Team Process Dynamics

Abstract

In this essay, I reflect on my journey as a scientist endeavoring to unpack team processes and effectiveness, offering observations, learning points, and insights I gained along the way. I have organized my journey into three phases; (1) developing multilevel theory as a set of meta-theoretical principles that provide a foundation for theory and research on team processes and effectiveness, (2) substantive theory and research focused on learning, regulation processes, development, adaptation and team leadership, and (3) process theorizing, team dynamics, and computational theorizing and modeling. I close with some recommendations for advancing the science of team process dynamics and effectiveness.

Keywords

team processes team dynamics team effectiveness team leadership multilevel theory computational theory and modeling

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Bales

R. F.

(1950). Interaction process analysis. Addison-Wesley.

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2002c). Goal orientation and ability: Interactive effects on self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 497–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.497

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 296–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2002a). Adaptive guidance: Enhancing self-regulation, knowledge, and performance in technology-based training. Personnel Psychology, 55(2), 267–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2002.tb00111.x

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2002b). A typology of virtual teams: Implications for effective leadership. Group & Organization Management, 27(1), 14–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601102027001003

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2010). Toward a theory of learner centered training design: An integrative framework of active learning. In Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Salas

(Eds.), Learning, training, and development in organizations (pp. 261–298). Routledge Academic.

Bell

B. S.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2011). Collective failure: The emergence, consequences, and management of errors in teams. In Hoffman

D. A.

Frese

(Eds.), Errors in organizations (pp. 113–141). Routledge Academic.

Bliese

P. D.

(2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 349–381). Jossey-Bass.

Braun

M. T.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Brown

T. A.

DeShon

R. P.

(2020). Exploring the dynamic team cohesion–performance and coordination–performance relationships of newly formed teams. Small Group Research, 51(5), 551–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496420907157

10.

Braun

M. T.

Kuljanin

Grand

J. A.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2022). The power of process theories to better understand and detect consequences of organizational interventions. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 15(1), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2021.125

11.

Chaffin

Heidl

Hollenbeck

J. R.

Howe

Voorhees

Calantone

(2017). The promise and perils of wearable sensors in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 20(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115617004

12.

Chao

G. T.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(1986). Employee perceptions on the implementation of robotic manufacturing technology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.71.1.70

13.

Chen

Kanfer

DeShon

R. P.

Mathieu

J. E.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2009). The motivating potential of teams: Test and extension of cross-level model of motivation in teams. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.06.006

14.

Dansereau

Alutto

J. A.

Yammarino

F. J.

(1984). Theory testing in organizational behavior: The variant approach. Prentice-Hall.

15.

Dansereau

Yammarino

F. J.

(2000). Within and between analysis: The variant paradigm as an underlying approach to theory building and testing. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 425–466). Jossey-Bass.

16.

DeShon

R. P.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Schmidt

A. M.

Milner

K. R.

Wiechmann

(2004). A multiple-goal, multilevel model of feedback effects on the regulation of individual and team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1035–1056. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.1035

17.

Dudzik

Broekens

Neerincx

Olenick

Chang

C. H.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hung

(2018). Discovering digital representations for remembered episodes from lifelog data. Proceedings of the workshop on modeling cognitive processes from multimodal data. Article 13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3279810.3279850.

18.

Farr

J. L.

Dubin

S. S.

Enscore

E. E.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Cleveland

J. N.

(1983). Relationships among individual motivation, work environment and updating in engineers. Psychological Documents, 13, 16. (Ms. No. 2563).

19.

Farr

J. L.

Enscore

E. E.

Dubin

S. S.

Cleveland

J. N.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(1983). Behavior anchored scales—A method for identifying continuing education needs of engineers. Psychological Documents, 13, 16. (Ms. No. 2562).

20.

Fernandez

Pearce

Grand

J. A.

Rench

T. A.

Jones

K. A.

Chao

G. T.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2013). Evaluation of a computer-based educational intervention to improve medical teamwork and performance during simulated patient resuscitations. Critical Care Medicine, 41(11), 2551–2562. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e31829828f7

21.

Fernandez

Rosenman

E. D.

Olenick

Misisco

Brolliar

S. M.

Chipman

A. K.

Vrablik

M. C.

Kalynych

Arbabi

Nichol

Grand

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2020). Simulation-based team leadership training improves team leadership during actual trauma resuscitations: A randomized controlled trial. Critical Care Medicine, 48(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000004077

22.

Fernandez

Shah

Rosenman

E. D.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Parker

S. H.

Grand

J. A.

(2017). Developing team cognition: A role for simulation. Simulation in Healthcare: Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare, 12(2), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1097/SIH.0000000000000200

23.

Forehand

G. A.

von Haller Gilmer

(1964). Environmental variation in studies of organizational behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 62(6), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045960

24.

Gedik

Olenick

Chang

C.-H.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hung

(2023). Capturing interaction quality in long duration (simulated) space missions with wearables. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 14(3), 2139–2152. https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3176967

25.

George

J. M.

James

L. R.

(1993). Personality, affect, and behavior in groups revisited: Comment on aggregation, levels of analysis, and a recent application of within and between analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(5), 798–804. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.78.5.798

26.

Gooty

Yammarino

F. J.

(2011). Dyads in organizational research: Conceptual issues and multilevel analyses. Organizational Research Methods, 14(3), 456–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428109358271

27.

Grand

J. A.

Braun

M. T.

Kuljanin

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2016). The dynamics of team cognition: A process-oriented theory of knowledge emergence in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(10), 1353–1385. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000136

28.

Grand

J. A.

Pearce

Rench

T. A.

Chao

G. T.

Fernandez

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2013). Going DEEP: Guidelines for building simulation-based team assessments. BMJ Quality & Safety, 22(5), 436–448. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2012-000957

29.

Griffin

D. J.

Somaraju

A. V.

Dishop

DeShon

R. P.

(2023). Evaluating interdependence in workgroups: A network-based method. Organizational Research Methods, 26(3), 459–498. https://doi.org/10.1177/10944281211068179

30.

Grudin

Poltrock

S. E.

(2012). Taxonomy and theory in computer supported cooperative work. In Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of organizational psychology (pp. 13223–21348). Oxford University Press.

31.

Hackman

J. R.

(1988). The design of work teams. In Lorsch

(Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 315–342). Prentice-Hall.

32.

Harrison

D. A.

Klein

K. J.

(2007). What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1199–1228. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.26586096

33.

Hattrup

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(1993). An across-organization analysis of the implementation of advanced manufacturing technologies. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 4(2), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/1047-8310(93)90003-x

34.

Hoch

J. E.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2014). Leading virtual teams: Hierarchical leadership, structural supports, and shared team leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(3), 390–403. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030264

35.

Hofmann

D. A.

Griffin

Gavin

(2000). The application of hierarchical linear modeling to organizational research. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 467–511). Jossey-Bass.

36.

Hollenbeck

J. R.

Beersma

Schouten

M. E.

(2012). Beyond team types and taxonomies: A dimensional scaling conceptualization for team description. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 82–106. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2010.0181

37.

Ilgen

D. R.

Hollenbeck

J. R.

Johnson

Jundt

(2005). Teams in organizations: From Input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517–543. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250

38.

James

L. R.

Williams

(2000). The cross-level operator in regression, ANCOVA, and contextual analysis. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 383–424). Jossey-Bass.

39.

James

L. R.

(1982). Aggregation bias in estimates of perceptual agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(2), 2l9–229. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.67.2.219

40.

James

L. R.

Demaree

R. G.

Wolf

(1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.69.1.85

41.

James

L. R.

Demaree

R. G.

Wolf

(1993). Rwg: An assessment of within-group interrater agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), 306–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.2.306

42.

James

L. R.

Jones

A. P.

(1974). Organizational climate: A review of theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 81(12), 1096–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037511

43.

Klein

K. J.

Bliese

P. D.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Dansereau

Gavin

M. B.

Griffin

M. A.

Hofmann

D. A.

James

L. R.

Yammarino

F. J.

Bligh

M. C.

(2000). Multilevel analytical techniques: Commonalities, differences, and continuing questions. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 512–553). Jossey-Bass.

44.

Klein

K. J.

Bliese

P. D.

(2000). An integrative perspective on multi-level analyses. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 512–553). Jossey-Bass.

45.

Klein

K. J.

Dansereau

Hall

R. J.

(1994). Levels issues in theory development, data collection, and analysis. Academy of Management Review, 19(2), 195–229. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1994.9410210745

46.

Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2000). Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions. Wiley.

47.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Bell

B. S.

(2006). Disentangling achievement orientation and goal setting: Effects on self-regulatory processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 900–916. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.900

48.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Doherty

M. L.

(1989). Integration of climate and leadership: Examination of a neglected issue. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 546–553. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.74.4.546

49.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hattrup

(1992). A disagreement about within-group agreement: Disentangling issues of consistency versus consensus. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(2), 161–167. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.77.2.161

50.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Ilgen

D. R.

(2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(3), 77–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00030.x

51.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2012). Groups and teams in organizations: Studying the multilevel dynamics of emergence. In Hollingshead

A. B.

Poole

M. S.

(Eds.), Research methods for studying groups and teams: A guide to approaches, tools, and technologies (pp. 260–283). Routledge Academic.

52.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2015). Advancing research on team process dynamics: Theoretical, methodological, and measurement considerations. Organizational Psychology Review, 5(4), 270–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614533586

53.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2018). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams: A reflection. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617697078

54.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2022). The data revolution and the interplay between theory and data. In Murphy

K. R.

(Ed.), Data, methods and theory in the organizational sciences (pp. 206–240). Routledge Academic. [Refereed].

55.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Bell

B. S.

(2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In Borman

W. C.

Ilgen

D. R.

Klimoski

R. J.

(Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 333–375). Wiley.

56.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Bell

B. S.

(2013). Work groups and teams in organizations. In Schmitt

Highhouse

(Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 12, 2nd ed., pp. 412–469). Wiley.

57.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Biswas

Chang

C. H.

(2018). Measuring, monitoring, and regulating teamwork for long duration missions. Final Report. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNX13AM77G). Houston, TX.

58.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2012a). Macrocognition, team learning, and team knowledge: Origins, emergence, and measurement. In Salas

Fiore

Letsky

(Eds.), Theories of team cognition: Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp. 19–48). Routledge Academic.

59.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2012b). The dynamics of emergence: Cognition and cohesion in work teams. Managerial and Decision Economics, 33(5-6), 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1002/mde.2552

60.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

(2018). Unpacking team process dynamics and emergent phenomena: Challenges, conceptual advances, and innovative methods. American Psychologist, 73(4), 576–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000245

61.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Chang

C.-H.

Fernandez

(2015). Team dynamics: Using “big data” to advance the science of team effectiveness. In Tonidandel

King

Cortina

(Eds.), Big data at work: The data science revolution and organizational psychology (pp. 272–309). Routledge Academic.

62.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Grand

J. A.

Braun

M. T.

Kuljanin

(2013). Advancing multilevel research design: Capturing the dynamics of emergence. Organizational Research Methods, 16(4), 581–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428113493119

63.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Grand

J. A.

Braun

M. T.

Kuljanin

(2016). Capturing the multilevel dynamics of emergence: Computational modeling, simulation, and virtual experimentation. Organizational Psychology Review, 6(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614547955

64.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Van Fossen

(2021). Leading virtual teams. Organizational Dynamics, 50(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2021.100842

65.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Farr

J. L.

(1988). An integrative model of updating and performance. Human Performance, 1(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup0101_1

66.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Gully

S. M.

Brown

K. G.

Salas

Smith

E. M.

Nason

E. R.

(2001). Effects of training goals and goal orientation traits on multi-dimensional training outcomes and performance adaptability. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2000.2930

67.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Gully

S. M.

McHugh

P. P.

Salas

Cannon-Bowers

J. A.

(1996). A dynamic theory of leadership and team effectiveness: Developmental and task contingent leader roles. In Ferris

G. R.

(Ed.), Research in personnel and human resource management (Vol. 14, pp. 253–305). JAI Press.

68.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Gully

S. M.

Nason

E. R.

Smith

E. M.

(1999). Developing adaptive teams: A theory of compilation and performance across levels and time. In Ilgen

D. R.

Pulakos

E. D.

(Eds.), The changing nature of work performance: Implications for staffing, personnel actions, and development (pp. 240–292). Jossey-Bass.

69.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Gully

S. M.

Salas

Cannon-Bowers

J. A.

(1996). Team leadership and development: Theory, principles, and guidelines for training leaders and teams. In Beyerlein

Johnson

Beyerlein

(Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership (Vol. 3, pp. 251–289). JAI Press.

70.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hults

B. M.

(1987). An exploration of climates for technical updating and performance. Personnel Psychology, 40(3), 539–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00614.x

71.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hung

Lehmann-Willenbrock

Salah

A. A.

(forthcoming). Computational group and team dynamics: Forging an interdisciplinary science. Oxford University Press.

72.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Klein

K. J.

(2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 3–90). Jossey-Bass.

73.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Mak

Chao

G. T.

(2016). Team-centric leadership: An integrative review. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3(1), 21–54. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062429

74.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Toney

R. J.

Mullins

M. E.

Weissbein

D. A.

Brown

K. G.

Bell

B. S.

(2001). Developing adaptability: A theory for the design of integrated-embedded training systems. In Salas

(Ed.), Advances in human performance and cognitive engineering research (Vol. 1, pp. 59–123). JAI/Elsevier Science.

75.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Watola

Jensen

J. M.

Kim

Botero

(2009). Developing adaptive teams: A theory of dynamic team leadership. In Salas

Goodwin

G. F.

Burke

C. S.

(Eds.), Team effectiveness in complex organizations: Cross-disciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 113–155). Routledge Academic.

76.

Kraiger

Ford

J. K.

Salas

(1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), 311–328. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.78.2.311

77.

Kuljanin

Braun

M. T.

Grand

J. A.

Olenick

J. D.

Chao

G. T.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2024). Advancing organizational science with computational process theories. Leadership Quarterly, 35(4), 101797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2024.101797.

78.

Levine

Moreland

R. L.

(1990). Progress in small group research. Annual Review of Psychology, 41(1), 585–634. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.41.1.585

79.

Lewin

Lippitt

White

R. K.

(1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates.” Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366

80.

Yuan

Y. C.

McLeod

P. L.

(2012). Twenty-five years of hidden profiles in group decision making: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 54–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311417243

81.

Macy

M. W.

Willer

(2002). From factors to actors: Computational sociology and agent-based modeling. Annual Review of Sociology, 28(1), 143–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141117

82.

Major

D. A.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Gardner

P. D.

(1995). A longitudinal investigation of newcomer expectations, early socialization outcomes, and the moderating effects of role development factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(3), 418–431. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.80.3.418

83.

Mak

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2019). Virtual teams: Conceptualization, integrative review, and research recommendations. In Landers

(Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of technology and employee behavior (pp. 441–479). The Cambridge University Press.

84.

Marks

M. A.

Mathieu

J. E.

Zaccaro

S. J.

(2001). A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26(3), 356–376. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2001.4845785

85.

McGrath

J. E.

(1964). Social Psychology: A brief introduction. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

86.

McGrath

J. E.

(1984). Groups: Interaction and performance. Prentice-Hall.

87.

McGrath

J. E.

(1990). Time matters in groups. In Galegher

Krout

Egido

C. C.

(Eds.), Intellectual teamwork (pp. 23–61). Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

88.

McGrath

J. E.

(1991). Time, interaction, and performance (TIP): A theory of groups. Small Group Research, 22(2), 147–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496491222001

89.

McGregor

(1960). The human side of enterprise. McGraw-Hill.

90.

Miles

R. E.

Snow

C. C.

Meyer

A. D.

Coleman

H. J.

Jr. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. Academy of Management Review, 3(3), 546–562. https://doi.org/10.2307/257544

91.

Mohammed

Rico

Alipour

K. K.

(2021). Team cognition at a crossroad: Toward conceptual integration and network configurations. Academy of Management Annals, 15(2), 455–501. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2018.0159

92.

Mohr

L. B.

(1982). Explaining organizational behavior: The limits and possibilities of theory and research. Proquest Info & Learning.

93.

Olenick

J. D.

Eggler

Bowker

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chang

C.-H.

Somaraju

A. V.

Griffin

D. J.

(in press). A qualitative investigation of teamwork in extreme environments. Group & Organization Management.

94.

Ostroff

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(1992). Organizational socialization as a learning process: The role of information acquisition. Personnel Psychology, 45(4), 849–874. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00971.x

95.

Ostroff

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(1993). The role of mentoring in the information gathering processes of newcomers during early organizational socialization. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42(2), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1993.1012

96.

Pentland

B. T.

(1999). Building process theory with narrative: From description to explanation. Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 711–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/259350

97.

Roberts

K. H.

Hulin

C. L.

Rousseau

D. M.

(1978). Developing an interdisciplinary science of organizations. Jossey-Bass.

98.

Rosenman

E. D.

Dixon

A. J.

Webb

J. M.

Brolliar

Golden

S. J.

Jones

K. A.

Shah

Grand

J. A.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Chao

G. T.

Fernandez

(2018). A simulation-based approach to measuring team situational awareness in emergency medicine: A multicenter, observational study. Academic Emergency Medicine, 25(2), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.13257

99.

Rosenman

E. D.

Misisco

Olenick

Brolliar

S. M.

Chipman

A. K.

Vrablik

M. C.

Chao

G. T.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Grand

J. A.

Fernandez

(2021). Does team leader gender matter? A Bayesian reconciliation of leadership and patient care during trauma resuscitations. Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians, 2(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/emp2.12348

100.

Rousseau

D. M.

(1985). Issues of level in organizational research: Multi-level and cross-level perspectives. In Cummings

L. L.

Staw

(Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 1–37). JAI Press.

101.

Schmidt

F. L.

Hunter

J. E.

(1989). Interrater reliability coefficients cannot be computed when only one stimulus is rated. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(2), 368–370. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.74.2.368

102.

Schneider

Bowen

D. E.

(1985). Employee and customer perceptions of service in banks: Replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.70.3.423

103.

Schneider

González-Romá

Ostroff

West

M. A.

(2017). Organizational climate and culture: Reflections on the history of the constructs in the Journal of Applied Psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 468–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000090

104.

Schneider

Reichers

A. E.

(1983). On the etiology of climates. Personnel Psychology, 36(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1983.tb00500.x

105.

Sherif

(1956). Experiments in group conflict. Scientific American, 195(5), 54–58. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/24941808

106.

Somaraju

A. V.

Griffin

D. J.

Olenick

Chang

C. D.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2022). The dynamic nature of interpersonal conflict and psychological strain in extreme work settings. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 27(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000290

107.

Somaraju

A. V.

Griffin

D. J.

Olenick

Chang

C. D.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2024). A dynamic systems theory of intrateam conflict contagion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 109(6), 871–896. in press.

108.

Stasser

Titus

(1985). Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1467–1478. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.48.6.1467

109.

Sutton

R. I.

Staw

B. M.

(1995). What theory is not. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(3), 371–384. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393788

110.

Thatcher

S. M. B.

Patel

P. C.

(2012). Group faultlines: A review, integration, and guide to future research. Journal of Management, 38(4), 969–1009. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311426187

111.

Townsend

A. M.

DeMarie

S. M.

Hendrickson

A. R.

(1996). Are you ready for virtual teams? HR Magazine, 41, 122-126.

112.

Van Fossen

J. A.

Olenick

Ayton

Chang

C.-H.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(2021). Relationships between personality and social functioning, attitudes towards the team and mission, and well-being in an ICE environment. Acta Astronautica, 189, 658–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.09.031

113.

Weaver

J. L.

Bowers

C. A.

Salas

Cannon-bowers

J. A.

(1995). Networked simulations: New paradigms for team performance research. Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers, 27(1), 12–24. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03203615

114.

Yammarino

F. J.

Markham

S. E.

(1992). On the application of within and between analysis: Are absence and affect really group-based phenomena? Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(2), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.77.2.168

115.

Zhang

Olenick

Chang

C.-H.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hung

(2018a). TeamSense: Assessing personal affect and group cohesion in small teams through dyadic interaction and behavior analysis with wearable sensors. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies, 2(3), 150. https://doi.org/10.1145/3264960

116.

Zhang

Olenick

Chang

C. H.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Hung

(2018b). The I in team: Mining personal social interaction routine with topic models from long-term team data. In Proceedings of the ACM 23rd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (pp. 421–426). https://doi.org/10.1145/3172944.3172997