Theoretical Principles of Simulation-Based Sales Communication Training

Abstract

Background. Simulation-based instruction can be applied successfully to communication skills training. However, communication skills training (CST) for salespeople is a somewhat underdeveloped area, and only limited knowledge of different theoretical approaches and their application to sales education is available.

Aim. We introduce (a) situated learning theory (SLT), and connect it to the theoretical framework of communication in the disciplines (CID), and (b) principles of drama education. We apply these theories to simulation-based training in communication skills.

Method. We use a Sales Theatre Workshop (STW) as an example to show how SLT and CID can guide instructional design. We explain how the principles of drama education guided the design of role-play with simulated clients and of a structured debriefing process.

Results. Using SLT, the CID theoretical framework and the principles of drama education allowed successful communication learning in the STW. Following these theoretical ideas, we chose a specific communication context, created authentic client cases, emphasized reflective participation and a psychologically safe learning environment, and made the experience applicable to real sales situations.

Conclusions. We conclude by stating how SLT and the principles of drama education can be applied to simulation-based training. We propose more investigation of the debriefing process as a subject for future research.

Keywords

authenticity client cases communication context communication in the disciplines (CID)communication skills training (CST)drama education psychologically safe learning environment reflective participation role-play sales education simulated clients simulation-based instruction simulation-based training situated learning theory (SLT)structured debriefing

Sales experts today need strong communication skills in order to accomplish sales processes, resolve conflicts (Hung & Lin, 2013), and manage customer relationships (Dwyer, Schurr, & Oh, 1987). However, communication skills training (CST) for salespeople is a somewhat underdeveloped area (Cummins, Peltier, Erffmeyer, & Whalen, 2013). The most common theoretical approach in sales training is experiential learning, along with learning activities such as case studies (Cummins et al., 2013). However, only limited knowledge of different theoretical approaches and their application to sales education is available. The aim of this article is to introduce situated learning theory (SLT) and show how it connects to the theoretical framework of communication in the disciplines (CID). We also introduce the principles of drama education. We explain how these theoretical principles apply to simulation-based training in sales communication with the example of a Sales Theatre Workshop (STW).

Situated Learning Theory (SLT) and Communication in the Disciplines (CID)

In contrast with learning as internalization, learning as increasing participation in communities of practice concerns the whole person acting in the world (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 49).

Situated learning is a type of learning that is embedded in context, activity, and culture (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Situated learning originated in the epistemological legacy of learning through social interaction and development (e.g. Vygotsky, 1978). It represents a major shift towards viewing learning as a social and cultural phenomenon (Zhu & Bargiela-Chiappini, 2013).

According to Lave and Wenger (1991), SLT calls for authentic activities (such as observing authentic business negotiations) and legitimate peripheral participation that is, the process in which newcomers become members of a community by first observing and practicing in low-risk tasks with guidance, and later handling more demanding tasks themselves. It also emphasizes the importance of communities of practice (Wenger, 2009), that is, groups of people who share a profession or expertise in a particular area. According to Wenger (1998, 2009), members of communities of practice are brought together by joining in and learning through common activities. Individuals also construct their identities by participating in communal activities.

Applications of the SLT and community of practice approach can be found in management literature (Omidvar & Kislov, 2014) and in educational research (Cobb & Bowers, 1999). The theory has also inspired communication scholars, who have advanced the theoretical framework of Communication in the Disciplines (CID). CID is a specific approach for organizing communication education and providing assistance to other disciplines on the teaching and learning of communication (Dannels & Housley Gaffney, 2009). CID focuses on teaching students specific disciplinary communication conventions and competencies. It is linked to SLT through its emphasis on disciplinary knowledge construction, the social construction of knowledge, and situated learning (Dannels, 2001). Therefore, participating in a professional organization is an essential component of a context-driven communication learning process. CID also admits that different disciplines value diverse aspects of communication competence (Dannels, 2001), and therefore, the requirements for communication training vary across disciplines and communities of practice.

In line with the principles of SLT and the theoretical framework of CID, communication training should provide an environment where participants engage in collaborative learning within the context of their own discipline. Moreover, newcomers should receive continuous feedback and guidance from peers, instructors and professionals (Artemeva, Logie, & St-Martin, 1999). Table 1 shows how a theoretical principle of SLT or CID is related to practical implications for sales communication training and furthermore for the Sales Theatre workshop.

Table 1.

Theoretical Principles of SLT (SLT) and the CID Framework and Their Practical Implications.

Theoretical principle of SLT or CID	Practical implication for sales communication training	Practical implication for Sales Theatre workshop
Communication competence criteria are based on disciplinary values and preferences (CID).	Criteria for good communication competence are formulated via disciplinary knowledge and discussions between communication and sales experts.	We chose professional sales and communication skills for the workshop from the “seven steps of selling” model (Moncrief & Marshall, 2005).
Communication competence is gradually learned as the individual participates in the community of practice (CID). Learning is based on legitimate peripheral participation (SLT).	Sales communication training is integrated into professional sales work. Participants first observe and practice low-risk tasks with guidance and later perform more demanding tasks themselves.	We ensured that every group included both less experienced and expert salespeople. Those with less experience could observe the experts and get guidance from them.
Learning communication is situated, context-driven and a social phenomenon (CID and SLT).	Sales communication training focuses on communication tasks that trainees face in their real sales work. Collaboration and social interaction are encouraged.	In role-play exercises, we simulated the participants’ real customer experiences. We conducted group exercises and held feedback discussions.
Newcomers get continuous feedback from experts (CID and SLT).	Feedback is based on the criteria for good communication competence defined in the sales field. Continuous feedback is given by peers, instructors and sales experts.	We held feedback discussions with peers, actors, and facilitators. A written debriefing was conducted after watching the videotaped role-play exercise.

Principles of Drama Education

After a powerful experience you have changed somehow, something has touched you – not directly, but through fiction. (Heikkinen, 2002, p. 149).

Drama education covers all drama and theatre activity that occurs in educational settings (Andersen, 2004; Nicholson, 2000) and has its roots in theatre art (Bolton, 2007). It includes several genres, such as forum theatre, Theatre in Education (Boal, 1995), and process drama (O’Toole, 1992). The central philosophical concept is serious playfulness, which is driven by the need to use stories to explore issues of human significance (Heikkinen, 2002); it means that although we play and have fun, our serious intention is to learn.

Drama is a social art form that is created by participants working collaboratively; learning in drama is an active, creative, and communal process (Østern & Heikkinen, 2001). Drama education creates a fictive time and space. Participants create and adapt to roles and use the conventions of drama to learn about the selected theme, social skills, themselves, and drama as an art form (O’Toole, 1992). Drama conventions are ways of organising time, space and action to create meanings (Owens & Barber, 2001). Since drama education is based on group activity, a psychologically safe learning environment should be created.

Learning in drama is based on aesthetic doubling (also referred to as metaxis), which Augusto Boal defines as “the state of belonging completely and simultaneously to two different, autonomous worlds: the image of reality and the reality of image” (Boal, 1995, p. 43). This means that participants act in roles in fictive time and space, see the world simultaneously from fictive and real perspectives, and analytically reflect on their experiences (Østern, 2007). Operating in a fictive environment allows the participants to experiment within a dramaturgical frame (Heikkinen, 2002) and try out alternative solutions. Table 2 shows how theoretical principles of drama education are related to creating simulation exercises in sales communication training and furthermore to the Sales Theatre workshop.

Table 2.

Theoretical Principles of Drama Education and Its Practical Implications.

Theoretical principle of drama education	Practical implication for creating simulation exercises in sales communication training	Practical implication for Sales Theatre workshop
Create fictive time, space, and roles.	A realistic sales negotiation can be organized by defining the roles of salesperson and customer and defining the place and time where the sales negotiation occurs.	We created client cases based on participants’ sales experiences. We supplied the fictive learning environment with chairs, tables and props.
Use a story and create tension to ensure meaningful learning tasks.	Simulation exercises come from participants’ (or the facilitator’s) real sales experiences. A challenge or tension between the salesperson and the customer should exist to ensure meaningful learning.	We encouraged the participants to describe a challenging sales experience to ensure that the simulated sales process has tension and learning potential.
Choose drama conventions.	The facilitator chooses the best drama conventions to meet the learning objectives.	We used role-play, simulated clients and improvisation.
Ensure a psychologically safe learning environment. Remember serious playfulness.	The facilitators and participants agree on the objectives, drama activities and conventions, and on rules for group work. The facilitator builds a collective fictive, imaginative world that enables serious learning.	We made a learning contract with the participants and emphasized practice over competition, voluntariness, confidentiality, safety and acceptance.
Give opportunities for reflective participation and aesthetic doubling.	To learn from simulation exercises, the participants need to reflect on their experiences. Aesthetic doubling is enhanced by the participants comparing their behavior in fictive and real-life situations.	We designed a structured oral debriefing process. Participants were encouraged to compare their fictive behavior to real life and think of alternative solutions.

Application to Simulation: The Sales Theatre Workshop (SWT)

It is sometimes hard to practically organize learning activities in authentic settings as SLT (Lave & Wenger, 1991) suggests. Drama education activities have the potential to create fictive worlds (learning environments) within the classroom that foster situated learning (Andersen, 2004; Koponen, Pyörälä, & Isotalus, 2014). Next, we explain how we organized the Sales Theatre workshop (SWT) to increase the effectiveness of sales communication training based on the theoretical principles shown in Tables 1 and 2.

The SWT was designed for entrepreneurs, sales managers and salespeople who want to improve their personal sales and communication skills. Based on SLT (Lave & Wenger, 1991), we chose a specific context relevant to sales experts, namely a sales experience with a challenging customer, and simulated a real professional context through role-play. The two-day workshop included short lectures, group work, and role-play exercises. The objectives of the workshop were to improve the communication skills needed for sales process in both business-to-business and business-to-consumer contexts. These skills were selected on the basis of the traditional “seven steps of selling” model (Moncrief & Marshall, 2005). The workshop was facilitated by experts in communication and sales management.

The initial choice to use role-playing was based on its benefits as a learning method: it motivates adult learners (Van Ments, 1999) and enables participants to simulate the social situations and practice the communication skills that are particularly interesting for professional training (Koponen et al., 2014; Mariais, Michau, & Pernin, 2011). Role-play involves placing the participants in a particular situation (either as themselves or as somebody else) and asking them to act it out (Van Ments, 1999). The questionnaire prior to the workshop asked the participants to describe a challenging real sales experience. The communication lecturer used these to create client role descriptions and trained actors to perform the roles of the clients in a two-hour training session. The actors were guided to be as realistic as possible in their expressions.

In spring 2013, twelve sellers and six professional actors participated in the workshop. The participants’ sales experience ranged from two (n = 5) to 10–30 years (n = 7). On the first day, we made a learning contract with the participants and activated them with drama conventions (see Table 2). The participants evaluated their own sales and communication skills and set their own learning objectives. We had interactive lectures, and we introduced them to the structure of the role-play through an exercise in a group of four people (salesperson, customer and observers). The second day involved role-play sessions where the participants were salespeople and actors played the roles of clients. This was followed by multifaceted feedback discussions. We worked in groups of six participants and a facilitator, and ensured that each group included both expert salespeople and less experienced ones.

Adding Value to the Debriefing Process

The debriefing process is highly important for learning from simulations and games (Crookall, 2010; Lederman, 1992). Therefore, sales communication training should enable participants to reflect on their experiences. In the SWT, we used a structured debriefing process, shown in Table 3, which has its roots in the Agenda-led outcome-based analysis model presented by (Kurtz, Silverman, and Draper (2005, pp. 114-115). Their model is a structured way of analyzing physician-patient interviews and giving feedback, which maximizes learning and safety in experiential sessions (e.g. when using simulated patients in medical students’ communication training). We modified their model and organized the debriefing sessions as follows: The facilitator led the feedback discussion. First, the facilitator started with the salesperson’s agenda and focused on salesperson’s self-reflection. Second, the facilitator focused on client’s perspective and asked the actor to give feedback to the salesperson. Third, the observers’ gave feedback related to the sales process and the salesperson’s communication skills. Finally, the facilitator summarized the learning.

Table 3.

Model of the Structured Debriefing Process in the Sales Theatre Workshop.

Facilitator’s agenda and questions
1) Focusing on the salesperson’s agenda: - How did you feel about being in a salesperson’s role? - How did you achieve your own goals? - How would you change your communication behavior in your own work and why? - What went so well that you would repeat it in real sales situations?
2) Focusing on the client’s perspective: - How did you feel as a client? - What kind of impression did you get from the salesperson? - Why did you decide to make a purchase (or not)?
3) Providing balanced feedback: The observers gave feedback to the salesperson related to the sales process and communication skills. The facilitator asked the observers to give first positive comments, then critical ones, and finally positive comments again.
4) The facilitator’s summary The facilitator gave feedback and summarized the learning throughout the role-play session. The facilitator formulated a take home message to show what the participants could learn from this particular session when comparing the fictive learning environment and the real-world.

Based on the principles of SLT (Lave & Wenger, 1991), the facilitators thought that participants and facilitators formed their own “community of practice in the classroom” in which they could learn from each other. Wenger (2009) states that people typically belong to several communities. In this case, two communities of practice emerged simultaneously: one for the sales profession (including salespeople) and one for the learning (including salespeople, actors, and facilitators). In the community of practice for learning, the less experienced salespeople received guidance from the experts and also gave the experts fresh ideas. Based on the principles of drama education, the facilitators encouraged the participants to compare their fictive experiences with ones from their own professional communities, and figure out applications to their everyday work.

The role-play exercises with simulated clients were videotaped. In a questionnaire after the workshop, the participants were asked to watch the videos and reflect on the feedback they had received. By extending the oral debriefing process to a written debriefing (Clapper, 2014; Petranek, 2000) we admitted that learning from simulation exercises can take place later: some new insights may come far later in our everyday work.

Conclusion

SLT, the CID theoretical framework and the principles of drama education can be applied to other simulation-based training targeted at any other professional group by following the ideas presented in Figure 1. The facilitator needs to create a fictive learning environment that represents the real professional context and create learning tasks, which are as authentic as possible. Furthermore, to enhance the transfer of learning it is important to encourage comparison between the simulated learning experience and applications to real professional work.

Figure 1.

Principles of SLT, the CID theoretical framework and drama education and their practical implications.

Our aim was to demonstrate the connections between these theoretical perspectives and provide new ideas to expand the theoretical foundation of sales communication training. These ideas can be used in designing new sales education curricula. According to these theoretical perspectives, the curriculum should include cooperation with real sales organizations; it should enable newcomers to first observe and practice sales tasks in simulated learning environments and later conduct real tasks in authentic settings by themselves. Newcomers should receive continuous feedback from experts and slowly become members of the sales community.

Furthermore, we gave the practical example of a Sales Theatre workshop that was highly connected with real sales situations. However, this study has limitations, which must be considered when evaluating the effectiveness of the workshop. Because this is a theoretical article, we did not evaluate the participants’ learning outcomes. Moreover, we did not compare the workshop with some other educational format, or investigate the transfer of learning. This should be conducted in the future. Even though, the two-day workshop was cost-effective and could be implemented in almost any sales organization. The workshop offered a profound way to focus on participants’ real sales experiences, which were shared and reflected on in groups. At its best, participation in the workshop may lead to positive reflections among their colleagues in sales organizations. Therefore, the oral debriefing process in a community of practice for learning and in the real sales community should be further studied in order to better understand the debriefing process and transfer of learning.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback and David Crookall for copyediting help. Moreover, we want to thank David Crookall and the guest editors Timothy Clapper and Iris Cornell for their supportive advice and valuable feedback.

Author Contributions

Both authors contributed equally to both the content and form of this article. Conceived and designed the study: JK, SJ. Wrote the final manuscript: JK, SJ. Wrote the first draft: JK, SJ. Made numerous critiques and suggested specific wording: JK, SJ. Designed most of the graphics: JK. All authors contributed to the editing of the manuscript.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Jonna Koponen holds a PhD in speech communication from the University of Tampere, Finland. Her teaching focuses on interpersonal and cross-cultural communication, negotiation, and international sales management. She does research related to communication and drama education, sales relationships and cultural aspects in international business. She has published in Industrial Marketing Management, Simulation & Gaming and Medical Teacher.

Contact: jonnapauliina.koponen@uef.fi

Saara Julkunen holds a DSc in management of SMEs from the University of Eastern Finland. Her teaching focuses on an extensive view of multifaceted international sales management in different kinds of companies. She does research related to sales relationships, interorganizational collaboration and entrepreneurship. She has published in Industrial Marketing Management.

Contact: saara.julkunen@uef.fi

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