Abstract
Contemporary music classrooms include a beautiful mosaic of individual children from diverse backgrounds, children who vary considerably in their capabilities, interests, and levels of motivation. Some of the variations we observe are related to social skills and knowledge. The effects of appropriate classroom behavior and positive social relationships on children’s success in school are well known. Although ideas associated with peer-assisted learning may be familiar to many music teachers, they take on greater importance when considering how these practices can help build a climate of inclusion in music classrooms and create positive classroom environments where all children learn and have a sense of belonging. The purpose of this article is to describe the benefits of positive, frequent peer interactions; to describe briefly the underlying theories and research supporting the practices of peer-assisted learning; and to provide classroom applications and benefits of music teachers’ collaborations with other professionals.
Children typically spend 6 hours a day in school classrooms, but much of what they learn is influenced by outside sources—by parents, relatives, neighbors, media, and, of course, other children. Some of the most influential and effective teachers of children are other children—siblings, school friends, and older children. They watch, listen, talk, and learn from one another.
From the time children begin to experience friendship, usually around the age of 2, they engage in positive reciprocal interactions; they begin to teach one another and begin to experience social and emotional support from other children. From the work of developmental psychologist Tomasello (1999), we learn that the inclination of individuals to teach others, even among the very young, is a distinctly human characteristic. What good can come from these interactions? How can music teachers capitalize on children’s inclinations to teach and learn from one another in ways that will affect music development?
Contemporary music classrooms include a beautiful mosaic of individual children from diverse backgrounds, children who vary considerably in their capabilities, interests, and levels of motivation. Some of the variations we observe are related to social skills and knowledge (e.g., following rules and routines, practicing self-control, and working cooperatively with others). In every classroom, we find children who are socially poised and skillful (often the favorites of teachers) and other children who lack these skills and consequently may have few friends and little success in school.
The effects of appropriate classroom behavior and positive social relationships on children’s well-being and success in school are well known, and for children with disabilities and other students who may be vulnerable or marginalized, social relationships can be critical to their success and well-being. Although ideas associated with peer-assisted learning (PAL) may be familiar to many music teachers, they take on greater importance when considering how these practices can help build a climate of inclusion in music classrooms and create positive classroom environments where all children learn and have a sense of belonging.
Extensive research examining the influences of social contexts on learning and development suggests that the music lives of children can be improved when interactions with same-age peers in inclusive music environments are frequent, positive, and reciprocal (Jellison, 2015). The purpose of this article is to describe the benefits of positive, frequent peer interactions, to describe briefly the underlying theories and research supporting the practices of PAL, and to provide classroom applications and benefits of music teachers’ collaborations with other professionals.
Theory and Research
From theory and research, we know that social ecology is a powerful influence on learning outcomes—cognitive, emotional, and social. The works of two prominent theorists, Albert Bandura and Lev Vygotsky, provide an understanding of why and how peer interactions can influence behavior and learning. A few brief comments about their work are relevant here.
Bandura (1977) was among the first to provide evidence about the influences of social contexts on learning outcomes, how learning is closely tied to the environment created by others in the group. Modeling is closely tied to his theories, and teachers are well aware of the importance of good music models, and for that matter, positive models for all academic and social behaviors in classrooms. Some children will learn appropriate skills by watching and listening to peers; others with need more direct instruction from teachers who arrange meaningful interactions with appropriate peer models.
Positive models can be abundant in music classrooms, and this fact alone provides a strong rationale for inclusive music experiences for children with disabilities. Positive models are also critical to children’s success in small groups and tutoring practices, practices influenced greatly by the work of Vgotsky (1935/1978), who proposed that social interactions are necessary for overall cognitive development and that communication among peers is a way for individuals to acquire skills and knowledge valued by a culture. Vgotsky believed that when skills are too difficult for a child, guidance and encouragement in what he called the “Zone of Proximal Development” would gradually lead the child to achieve higher skill levels and greater independence.
The early works of Bandura and Vgotsky were groundbreaking in education and led to a wealth of research in order to examine the influences of social interactions on children’s behaviors and the effects on learning of what became known as PAL strategies. A variety of strategies (e.g., cooperative learning, peer tutoring) appear in the research literature, each with nuances regarding ways to structure groups to include variations in group size, task, and assessment. In a meta-analysis of hundreds of PAL studies observing elementary school children teaching one another, Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, and Miller (2003) found positive academic learning outcomes, particularly for those children defined as vulnerable (e.g., at-risk, with disabilities). In another meta-analysis of studies examining interactions between members of clearly defined groups (based on race, ethnicity, and disability), extended face-to-face interactions were found to reduce prejudice (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). Consistent with this literature, a review of music research found that small groups or peer tutoring resulted in positive interactions between children with disabilities and typically developing children and increases in positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities (Jellison & Taylor, 2007).
From our own work, systematically observing peer interactions and social behaviors of children, we find that music teachers and music therapists attend frequently to the social behaviors of their students, although they structure direct face-to-face interactions far less frequently. We also found this to be the case for research that concerns populations with disabilities. In our reviews of almost 40 years of music research with children with disabilities (Brown & Jellison, 2012) and children in inclusive school settings (Jellison & Draper, 2015), research variables measured most often were “social” (e.g., following instructions, self-regulation), although far fewer examined peer interactions as an intervention or a measured outcome. Even though music research specific to peer interactions and PAL is infrequent, music teachers can feel confident in developing applications grounded in theories and research from the fields of psychology and special education.
Classroom Strategies
When students’ social behaviors are topics in music education pedagogical and research literature, the behaviors are often those that concern classroom management. Some teachers may be reluctant to structure interaction activities because of management concerns, although the research literature provides recommendations that will lead to more effective, productive, and successful outcomes. Several recommendations are presented below.
Establish Rules, Monitor, and Praise
Most teachers have classroom rules, they are a part of any well-managed classroom, but specific rules are essential for peer interaction activities. For example, for cooperative learning activities, students must know what cooperating means—that everyone contributes, learns the material, listens to each other, shares ideas, asks each other questions, and asks each other for help (Johnson, Johnson, & Taylor, 1993). Also, students are more on-task when teachers monitor and praise groups for cooperative behaviors (Rohrbeck et al., 2003). Students can learn how to independently praise each other and give feedback as well (Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons, 1997). Other kinds of rewards are effective to maintain cooperative behaviors such as earning time for the group to listen to preferred music on headphones (Jellison, Brooks, & Huck, 1984).
Form Heterogeneous Groups
Originally, cooperative learning was designed to facilitate interactions between students of different races (Johnson & Johnson, 1981); recently, PAL strategies have been used to increase interactions among students with and without disabilities in inclusive classrooms (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2013; Carter et al., 2013; Rossetti, 2011). With few exceptions, group membership can and, in some cases, should be heterogeneous to achieve music learning and other positive social goals. Small groups should include no more than six students, with only one student with a disability in each group (Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck, & Fantuzzo, 2006; Rohrbeck et al., 2003). Young children placed in same-gender peer groups experience more academic and social benefits; however, gender does not affect outcomes as students age (Ginsburg-Block et al., 2006; Rohrbeck et al., 2003), so teachers should not be concerned about placing boys and girls in the same group. There are some concerns, however, about friends being in the same group; friends can be off-task and also know how to “push each others’ buttons,” resulting in conflict. Students in groups that avoid conflict report more enjoyment (Anderson et al., 2001). Finally, though the instinct may be to place students of the same achievement level together, both low- and high-achieving students benefit from participating in a heterogeneous group (Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller, 2006).
Vary Tasks and Strategies
When teachers design multiple ways to engage students and give them different ways to show what they know and can do, more students will experience success. Some research suggests varying tasks among students; some may use flash cards, some may read to each other, and still others may write a new story (Sanez, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005). When several different tasks occur in one activity, teachers can control how long the group works by deleting and adding tasks as appropriate; interactions need not be lengthy or complex. They can be as short and simple as asking students to say something to a partner that they remember from the previous activity. Some teachers call this “think, pair, share,” prompting students to think about the answer to a question, form pairs (with nonassigned or assigned partner), and share thoughts. A more complex task may involve composing and using a variety of instruments and technology.
Ample evidence exists in support of the use of different PAL strategies (e.g., pairs and small groups, tutoring, cooperative learning groups), teachers should vary strategies, since some students may be more successful in one type than another. Some strategies call for students to take on leadership roles, such as tutoring, although the role of tutor can change within the pair (reciprocal tutoring), thus giving the typical student and the student with a disability opportunities to practice detecting errors and giving helpful feedback. Small groups may require students to work together as equal contributors, although the pairing of students and determination of the task for each of the students in the pair (what to look for or listen to) must be based on the strengths, characteristics, and skills of each student. When students with disabilities are in leadership roles (roles carefully selected by the teacher), negative stereotyping by typical students toward the student and low expectation of capabilities can decrease.
Start Early
Effective music teachers establish procedures for routines and activities early in the school year. When small-group work begins early in the school year, there are benefits for teachers and students alike. Students learn that group work is an important and regularly occurring classroom activity; they learn that positive, collaborative interactions are expected; and they learn how to interact with and help each other throughout the year. Also, when students have multiple experiences interacting with one another in small-group music activities early in the school year, positive interactions and attitudes of typical students toward their classmates with disabilities increase (Jellison et al., 1984).
Collaboration
Students use social skills and interact with peers frequently throughout their school day; many with disabilities may be learning these same skills and ways of interacting in their special education or therapy classes. Skills may relate to communication and social interactions and may even be identified on individualized education programs. Music teachers may see the same students as special educators and other related service providers (e.g., speech therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, music therapy). Although structured peer interaction activities in music classrooms provide ideal opportunities for students to practice newly learned social skills, these opportunities are maximized when music teachers collaborate with other professionals, with parents, and with students as well, when appropriate.
Although music teachers understand important goals for all students’ music learning, special educators and parents are aware of many of the students’ learning needs, strengths, characteristics, and social goals. They are often good sources of information for strategies and assistive devices that will facilitate students’ success. Perhaps a student uses a special system or device to communicate, one that can give the student a “voice” in the music classroom and peer interaction activities (e.g., using pictures, the iPad, sign language to make choices, express preferences, and talk). Music should not be a break from communication but instead provide another setting where students can practice. When music teachers understand the basics of the students’ devices or systems, they are more likely to design partner or small-group experiences where the students can participate more fully.
Special educators are usually willing to give information and advice to music teachers about students’ assistive devices, communication systems, specialized equipment, or visual aids. Also, they may see students throughout the day or may be the first to receive information about the students’ behaviors outside of class; they may have useful information regarding interactions with typical peers. For example, knowing that a typical student was a particularly good helper for his or her classmate with disabilities during lunch may suggest that this student would be a good partner or group member for a music activity. Perhaps knowing that the students ride on the same bus or live in the same neighborhood will lead to opportunities for partner conversations or group creative music activities that use familiar sounds or names.
Students who receive special education services often receive at least one related service. Although the focus of the therapy may vary, on some level all related service professionals are concerned with the social development of their students. Music therapists are known to collaborate and consult with educators frequently (Register, 2002), and they, along with the speech and language pathologist, often focus instruction on communication and social development. Although music therapists and speech and language pathologists may address social development in individual or separate class settings, they most likely will be helpful consultants regarding ways to maximize students’ opportunities for successful peer interactions.
Closing
Many teachers have inspiring stories about their typical students’ natural interactions, kindnesses, and sensitivities regarding classmates with disabilities. There are, however, other students who will need to learn how to interact with children who seem different from themselves, and they often learn best through interactions that are structured by their teachers. Given the current research, there is a high probability that when positive interactions are structured early in the school year, the mutual respect and understanding that are nurtured through these interactions will generalize to informal interactions among students, thus providing positive models for other students throughout the school.
Students can begin to view their classrooms as places where everyone belongs. They can begin to teach one another and collaborate in ways that allow everyone to participate more fully. Children learn best in a positive classroom environment, and children, teaching and learning together, vividly remind us of this fact.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.