Abstract
Incorporating surprise into music instruction can stimulate student attention, curiosity, and interest. Novelty focuses attention in the reticular activating system, increasing the potential for brain memory storage. Elementary ages are ideal for introducing novel instruments, pieces, composers, or styles of music. Young children have fewer experiences to draw from and less information stored in the memory. Like music, surprise is time-related. Opportunities to incorporate surprise in music instruction are plentiful. Mystery involves uncertainty and can engage a child’s imagination, fostering an environment ripe for discovery of new or unexpected information. When expectation is strong, surprise has its greatest effect and opportunities for learning are optimal. Music students can be primed for surprise through rehearsal and routine. In instruction, surprise should be relevant to content, age-appropriate, memorable, creative, and positive. Children can benefit from a debriefing following the surprise and from help in transferring new information to familiar content or experiences.
The fourth-grade students had just finished singing the Irish folksong “Hush Thee My Dove” onstage during their program when they began to hear droning sounds. Bagpipes burst full throttle into sound from the darkness of the back of the auditorium. They were loud. They were beautiful! And the sound was moving closer. From the darkness of the center aisle of the auditorium appeared a bagpiper clad in Scottish uniform. This wasn’t part of the show. The music teacher hadn’t talked about this in the rehearsal. What was going on? Parents in the audience turned in their seats to look at the bagpiper who was processing regally toward the stage. Young siblings in the aisle scrambled to clear his path. The fourth graders exchanged glances with each other with some mouths gaping open in shock. A few of the children began to clap to the beat of the music. Soon the whole auditorium was alive with excitement, smiling faces, clapping, and Celtic character. On reaching the stage, the bagpiper spoke in a distinct Scottish accent about the instrument, his uniform, and Scottish customs. The international theme of the program was brought to life. The bagpiper recessed, playing more triumphantly than his entrance, and the fourth graders resumed their program as rehearsed. But this experience would be one they would long replay in their minds.
The above story was an informal experiment I conducted after hearing Judy Willis, author of Research-Based Strategies to Ignite Student Learning, speak about brain research and education during a professional development day at my school. I was fascinated by the notion that surprise can have important effects on the brain and can therefore influence learning. Willis explained that surprise stimulates the brain and can increase student attention, curiosity, and interest (2006, p. 11). She cites novelty as one of three factors that focuses the attention of the reticular activating system, leading to greater chances of information being stored in the memory (2006, p. 40). Willis spoke about an experiment in which she placed an artichoke on each student’s desk before class one day. The artichokes did not pertain to the lesson and were not part of any previous discussion, so the students were surprised and curious when they entered the room and saw them. Finding an unexpected object on their desks yielded a mind-set that was attentive, focused, and ready to absorb any new information presented.
My fourth-grade music students were surprised because they did not expect to hear a live bagpiper perform during their program. Jonathan Adler, in his article “Surprise,” states that surprise is greatest when one’s expectations are strong (2008, p. 156). The children had rehearsed their program many times and became well accustomed to the songs and the order in which each song would be performed. The success of the rehearsal process primed them for the surprising experience of a guest performance. Adler suggests that surprises are most valuable to instruction when they perplex or puzzle the students, because this pulls the students deeper into the subject, stretches their expectations, and leads to new understanding (2008, pp. 159, 161). Though the children wore simple costumes representing the regions of the world they were singing about, the appearance of a Scottish bagpiper in the auditorium gave them the opportunity to see the full, authentic uniform and to hear someone speaking in a distinct Scottish accent. Moreover, his performance gave them the opportunity to hear the excruciatingly loud dynamic of sound that bagpipes produce when played indoors. This would have been impossible to depict verbally, with a photo, or even with a video.
Surprise is a topic that has intrigued psychologists, including Charles Darwin, since 1872 (Darwin, 1872/1998). Darwin studied infants and children, among other subjects, identifying human emotion as a physiological phenomenon that was related to thinking and learning. Researchers such as Paul J. Silvia, who refers to surprise as a “knowledge emotion,” continue to explore ways in which emotional surprise can heighten interest and influence learning (2008, pp. 57-60). Numerous researchers define surprise as an emotion following the occurrence of an unexpected event (Maguire, Maguire, & Keane, 2011, p. 176). It is perhaps this affective nature of surprise that creates a sense of meaning and connection within a person and makes surprise such a fascinating tool for use in music instruction.
Like Willis, there are several educational researchers who are honing in on the benefits of novel learning experiences in the classroom. It is likely that many music teachers intuitively use aspects of surprise in their teaching although research on the topic remains scarce. One example is University of Washington researcher John Roberts who found that his fourth-grade music students reacted with surprise when they learned new repertoire or played a new instrument, such as the recorder (2013, p. 73). Studies have found that surprise can not only stimulate interest and direct student attention but also motivate exploratory behavior and thereby enhance learning (Barto, Mirolli, & Baldassarre, 2013, p. 907). Several researchers also link it to the development of open-mindedness because it challenges students’ assumptions and forces them to be receptive to the unexpected (Adler, 2008, p. 164; Lawrence, 2000, p. 183; Schwabenland, 2011, p. 148). These attributes make it worth consideration from an instructional standpoint because it may have the potential to turn young students onto the subject of music and create an environment that is ripe for learning to occur.
Although most educators would agree that establishing and following routines and guidelines is crucial for young students in the elementary grade levels, a teacher who presents the same types of activities, in similar order, with the same general approach from week to week can cause the music experience to become predictable to young children. When conducting experiments with his fourth-grade music students, Roberts also found that interest waned when the activity went on for too long (Roberts, 2013, p. 75).
It is human nature to crave something new or different from the usual. Terri Hebert, in her article on how to inspire students, challenges teachers to “fend off” standardization and strive to create a sense of wonder and awe in our classroom: “We craft learning experiences” (Hebert, 2010, p. 148). We are the craftspeople, and it is up to us to give students something new or different than usual. In the article “Novelty or Surprise?,” Barto, Mirolli, and Baldassarre describe surprise as an emotion that occurs when someone perceives something that is different from what he or she predicts (Barto et al., 2013, p. 2). They cite an example of the conditioning that takes place when a puff of air is blown into the eye during an optical exam. After having this test done a few times, we come to predict how it will feel and anticipate the puff by blinking our eyes. Robert Rescorla’s progressive model on classical conditioning from 1971 (which became known to psychologists as the Rescorla-Wagner model in 1972) claims that learning only takes place when events violate our expectations (1971, pp. 122-123). While this idea may originally have seemed radical, it is not altogether unreasonable when one considers the fast pace of information that today’s youth are accustomed to absorbing on a regular basis.
“Bayesian surprise,” according to researchers Laurent Itti and Pierre Baldi, is the measure of difference between an observer’s prior and posterior beliefs (2005, pp. 547-554). Implicit in this definition is the idea that surprise causes a large change in beliefs because the student did not think the event could or would happen. On one April Fools’ Day, I shuffled some of the instrument pictures hanging on my classroom wall to the “wrong” instrument family headings before the school day started. This attracted the attention of my third graders who had been studying instrument families and figured out that the error was due to the holiday. They enjoyed helping put the instruments back into the “correct” family, but this activity represented a smaller Bayesian surprise than the bagpiper who appeared during our music program. My kindergarten music students experienced a slightly bigger “Bayesian” surprise one year when they saw my large, black spider, made out of gel, crawl clumsily down our classroom wall as they entered Music class one day in October. Purchased from a local discount store, the spider became an appealing attraction for the young students. They were fascinated because this insect was a newcomer in our room, and because its erratic movement made it look real. I was able to segue smoothly into our Halloween rhymes that I had planned because I had captivated the children’s attention with this spider from the outset of the lesson. Had they been fifth-grade students, the spider may not have caused such a large Bayesian surprise because they would have known it was not real.
Surprise can enable the student to learn new information or gain new understanding. Jan Storck and her colleagues argue that experiencing surprise encourages the student to continue to seek out new information as a “curiosity reward” and conversely avoid regions of the environment where he or she feels bored due to lack of new information (1995, p. 164). Should this be the case with our elementary music students, the teacher would be compelled to use surprise as a tool in instruction to keep the level of student interest high. While most music educators would agree that repetition is an integral component of music learning, particularly in children’s understanding of pitch and key, a break from the repetition also serves an important role in capturing attention and preparing the mind for intake of new information.
Surprise, Novelty, and Mystery
The terms surprise and novelty are sometimes used interchangeably because they both deal with new information. Barto et al. distinguish between the two, arguing they are different. They state that surprise is typically equated with time whereas novelty deals more with an individual’s experience and memory (Barto et al., 2013, p. 8). A surprise occurs suddenly in time, and we tend to experience it as an interruption. Without notice, people must try to make sense of what they are noticing as the surprise is occurring (Maguire et al., 2011, p. 184; Weick, cited in Schwabenland, 2011, p.141).). The fact that surprise is a time-related phenomenon makes it uniquely relevant to music when compared to other arts or subjects. Music is a time-based art. Music philosopher James Mursell was one of the first to discuss the feeling of expectation that we experience when listening to music (Werpy, 1992, p. 122). He spoke about “expressive devices” that cause us to feel either satisfied or frustrated (Werpy, 1992, p. 122). The thought process that occurs as we experience music shows that both mental and emotional processes come into play at the same time. The manner in which writer Israel Scheffler describes surprise also combines these two human processes; he calls surprise a cognitive emotion (1986, p. 356).
While novelty almost always implies a surprise, surprise does not always imply novelty. These distinctions may be useful to our understanding of (1) children and (2) an instructional lesson. First, students who are at a young age have fewer years of life and school experience and less information stored in their long-term memories to draw from (Barto et al., 2013, p. 6). 1 Therefore, opportunity abounds for novelty to be incorporated in elementary music instruction because so much will be new or “fresh,” as Willis suggests, to young children. Surprising very young children is likely to be more challenging because their experience is still very much in development and they experience time differently from adults with a strong tendency to focus on the present (Wood, 1999, pp. 36-39). 2 They are just beginning to learn “what to expect” in music class. Despite these limitations, incorporating surprise is possible in music class because of the fact that an instructional lesson is taught over a period of time such as 50 minutes and because music is also an art form that occurs in time.
A third realm to consider for music instruction is mystery. Activities that engage a child’s imagination are integral to the learning process and also to the development of his or her creativity. The idea of mystery centers around uncertainty one may have about a given situation. For example, What might happen next? Why did something happen? Who is behind the curtain? What kind of sound or instrument did I just hear? What if the song were to end differently than it does? What is the name of the mystery song that we see notated? Young children might be asked to locate a hidden object as part of a singing game. Not only does searching for a hidden object engage their interest because of their developmental stage, it also aids their eye tracking and ability to fixate on an object, which is a necessary skill for reading music notation (Haddad, Chen, & Keen, 2011, pp. 130-131). Grasping the object they find can satisfy their need to take in information through the tactile sense while also helping the child develop fine motor skills that will be needed to maneuver music instruments. Mystery has less to do with timing and more to do with missing information that one has a compelling reason to find. Incorporating mystery in a lesson can lead students to become curious. When they become curious, they are primed to be able to absorb new information as well as come up with their own ideas.
When studying American composers, I invited a guest pianist to visit my fifth-grade music classes and perform John Cage’s work, 4’33”. The title of this piece was mysterious to the children—What does it mean? The fact that the piece contains only rests was novel to them. Furthermore, watching the work performed live and having to wait through the rests and listen to the sounds in the room and building made the experience very real for them. I knew the live performance made an impression on them when many of the children reported that they went home to “perform” the piece for their families after dinner that same evening.
Mystery is also related to child’s play, and it has long been stated that children learn through play. Hanna Rosin explores changes in child’s play over the past 45 years, in her essay, “The Overprotected Kid.” She contends that society has gradually placed more and more constraints on children’s play areas and equipment to “protect” them and make them safe. However, in doing so, children are being robbed of their chance to develop into independent, expressive, risk takers that they once were years ago:
It is no longer easy to find a playground that has an element of surprise, no matter how far you travel. Kids can find the same slides at the same heights and angles as the one in their own neighborhood, with many of the same accessories (Rosin, 2014).
Rosin equates playgrounds that are too safe with being predictable, boring, and sterile; she contends this is the environment today’s children are conditioned to “know.” Although Rosin focuses on child development outside the classroom, educators can use mystery (the unpredictable) as a means of fostering discovery, imaginative or free thought, and independent thinking inside the classroom.
Surprising Elementary Music Students: Approaches for Success
Whether we surprise elementary music students with a guest visitor, a new instrument, or a manipulative they have never seen before, there are several ways to optimize the experience for the children.
1. Make the surprise “relevant” to music and the topic or unit they are studying. While surprises that have nothing to do with your curriculum or the subject of music might be effective in capturing their attention, they are less purposeful and will be less likely to further your instructional objectives. A surprise pertaining to music can help introduce a new topic, transition to a known topic or shed new light on it, and drive an important point home. For example, show them how Franz Joseph Haydn also used a surprise in one of his symphonies. My students performed this excerpt using body movement onstage in their second grade program and delighted in showing their parents the surprise! Another example is when I took my third-grade students down to the front office of the school and surprised our front office staff with a performance of the Valentine’s song we were learning in class. The children reveled in the chance to deliver a “singing telegram” to someone special in their school, and leaving our classroom was a deviation from the ordinary.
2. Consider the age of the children when planning the surprise so it will have the effect you are hoping for. Where is your class developmentally? What kinds of things do they find interesting or funny? Are they attracted to tactile objects? A surprise aimed at the child’s level and interests is more likely to be understood.
3. Dedicate reflective thought and care when planning the timing of the surprise. Does the class or grade show sufficient signs of readiness for how to react to a surprise without wild or disruptive behavior? Are the children very familiar with your expectations, guidelines, and routines? Do they show respect on a regular basis in the classroom? If the answer is no to these questions, the children are not ready and negative consequences are likely to result from incorporating surprise. Similarly, the timing must also be appropriate from an instructional perspective. An ill-timed surprise has the potential to distract children when strong focus is needed, such as when they are learning to read or play sixteenth notes or when they are trying to memorize songs for their program. Use judgment to determine whether the children are on track in your curriculum; a surprise may not be the best use of class time if they are severely behind where they should be.
4. Use surprise to create a special, memorable experience for the children. Having a visitor enter the room in costume will be more memorable than showing them a picture of a person in costume! Doing an activity with the surprise manipulative will be more memorable than just using the manipulative initially to obtain their attention. Although memory storage of a surprise experience can certainly enhance a child’s overall outlook on music class or even school, it is not necessarily an end goal. As Willis explains, the goal of memory is for the information to later be retrievable (2006, pp. 4-5, 15). Young children may not comprehend the purpose of the surprise, but a teacher can help communicate how the surprise fits in with something they are learning about and, in doing so, help them build a context.
5. As the recipients of a surprise, children will be in a vulnerable position. Take this into account and take care to make the experience one that is positive, pleasant, fun, or inspirational. The surprise should be an event that contributes to a positive classroom atmosphere and strengthens your relationship with the children and not the reverse. The teacher is obligated to help children make sense of what they experienced and assimilate the new information with the past and future.
6. Consider the needs of ALL learners and strive to balance the need for novelty with the need for routine. Incorporating novelty or surprise should be no different from any other approach to planning instruction: The children are at the center of the planning. Instructional activities must reach children in ways that are safe and nurturing. A child’s emotional, mental, and physical well-being is not only important but integral for surprise to act as a stepping stone to new information. This includes consideration of whether there are special needs learners within the class and knowing as much as possible about their needs. Blythe LaGasse, a music therapist who specializes in working with children with autism spectrum disorders, believes surprise would affect students with special needs differently depending on their individual characteristics. She states,
Many children with special needs prefer structure and predictability. Some children on the autism spectrum may need some preparation for the surprise, other children may welcome or enjoy a surprise used in the classroom. It likely depends on the type surprise—is it a sound, a visual image, and so on (B. LaGasse, personal communication, June 2, 2015).
The better we know our students, the stronger our judgment will be in determining whether a surprise might adversely affect the student (and potentially the classroom environment) and the easier it will become to adapt an activity for a student. For example, the teacher might arrange for a special needs student to meet the “surprise” visitor in the hallway outside the classroom before class begins and initiate conversation before the entrance. Additional variables that will likely effect a teacher’s course of action include the type of mainstreaming (partial or full) and the presence or absence of paraprofessional aides. It is recommended that teachers collaborate with the school counselor to gather the information needed to guide planning.
7. Be creative! Music is a creative art, and there are so many ways to integrate surprise into music instruction. Songs and music literature contain many surprises in themselves!
8. Debrief with your students following the surprise. Children in any grade level will be curious and excited to talk about their reaction to the surprise. Using language they understand, talk with students about “what” made the event surprising, and help them piece together new information and relate it to things they already know. Older students could even be asked to write about their reaction.
9. Help your students transfer the experience of the surprise to their musical learning. Don’t assume they will be able to transfer the knowledge on their own. Help them make a connection, for example, between the feeling of surprise they experience when they enter to find a new manipulative, such as solfège syllables hanging at different heights from the ceiling in your room, to a surprise involving pitch in a piece of music literature. Author Robert E. Haskell also points out repetition plays an important role in reinforcing new information and enabling the student to transfer the meaning to other contexts (2001, p. 26). 3 Therefore, in subsequent class sessions, it may be helpful to continue to discuss the surprise experience with children. The child’s ability to make connections is vital to his or her memory storage and retention (Willis, 2006, p. 19). Communicate with classroom teachers about the surprise to extend the number and types of ways that children are able to transfer the information beyond music class.
Concluding Thoughts
Elementary music teachers can build unexpected events into lessons to create a classroom atmosphere filled with interest, curiosity, and excitement. Students will begin to wonder: What will happen in music class? What will happen next in this piece of music? How does what I saw or heard fit in with what I already know or understand? Children who are sitting on the edge of their seats may become inspired by their teacher’s own creativity and imagination and later be inclined to follow this model in their own work, projects, and compositions.
If incorporating moments of surprise, novelty, or mystery can help engage children mentally and emotionally during their time with us, and potentially optimize chances for learning to take place, it seems logical for us to consider creative ways to integrate such techniques into instruction. An occasional surprise can enhance the child’s learning experience, help make the information learned more memorable and lasting, and perhaps most importantly, prepare children to thrive in a world that is full of novelty, change, and unpredictability. When a person looks back on his or her own education in its entirety, the memory preserves only a few “moments” with a few teachers that can be recalled vividly. Perhaps the incorporation of surprise in our instruction can be another factor that distinguishes Music class as one of the “standout” memories for future children. Enjoyment also abounds for us as music teachers. The fun is in the planning of surprises with and for our students, in seeing reactions, and in helping children piece new information together with the old.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.