Financial Stress and Work Hope Beliefs Among Adolescents

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship of perceived financial stress and strain within the family with work hope beliefs among 119 adolescents in the United States. As expected, higher levels of perceived financial stress and strain related to lowered work hope. Using a test of moderation, we explored how this relationship was influenced by adolescents’ perceptions of support for educational success from their primary caregiver. Results indicated that caregiver support for educational success moderated the relationship between perceived financial stress and strain and work hope such that the negative relationship between financial stress and strain was strengthened among those who reported heightened perceived caregiver support for educational success. Limitations and implications for research and practice are discussed.

Keywords

adolescents work hope beliefs financial strain financial stress caregiver support for educational success

The economic recession has impacted the United States and global labor markets (e.g., Edelman & Holzer, 2013; Kalil, 2013). Vocational psychologists are attending to the health and career development challenges that have emerged as a result of the poor economy (e.g., Blustein, Kozan, & Connors-Kellgren, 2013; Dahling, Melloy, & Thompson, 2013). To date, much of this research has focused on the unemployed adult (e.g., Dahling et al., 2013; Paul & Moser, 2009). Limited research, however, exists regarding the impact of the economy for adolescents and young adults. This is despite the fact that some (e.g., Beinart, 2013) have argued that the generation of individuals who have been, and will continue to be, most impacted by changes in the global and national economy (e.g., recession, declining wages, and declines in government spending on higher education) are adolescents and young adults.

Scholars (e.g., McWhirter, 1997) have argued that it is important to examine adolescents’ perceptions about the world of work prior to college. These perceptions have been posited to directly impact decisions about completing high school or pursuing higher education. Career scholars (e.g., Ali & McWhirter, 2006; Kenny, Blustein, Chaves, Grossman, & Gallagher, 2003; McLoyd, Jayaratne, Ceballo, & Borquez, 1994) have called for attention to contextual supports and barriers that may impact adolescents’ perceptions about the world of work, given the documented relationships between degree completion and post academic success (e.g., Lievens & Sackett, 2012). These suggestions also are in line with the relationships posited in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2000) which depict the interplay of person inputs and background contextual affordances with experiences with environmental supports and barriers in the prediction of career beliefs, goals, and actions. The purpose of this study was to extend prior research and theory by exploring the extent to which adolescents’ perceived financial stress and strain within the family relates to their beliefs about future work.

Hope and Work Beliefs

Snyder’s (2000) theory of hope was born out of the positive psychology movement. Snyder, Irving, and Anderson (1991) described hope as cognitive processes that facilitate the development of a state of motivation. Hope reflects individuals’ perceptions regarding their capacity to (a) conceptualize goals, (b) develop pathways toward achieving the goals, and (c) utilize strategies toward achieving the goals (Snyder, 2000). Hope has been examined across disciplines and has been demonstrated to be relevant to several of outcomes, including academic achievement (e.g., Michael, 2000; Onwuegbuzie, 1998), athletic performance (Curry, Grothaus, & McBride, 1997), social competence (e.g., Barnum, Snyder, Rapoff, Mani, & Thompson, 1998), and psychological adjustment (Chang & DeSimone, 2001). Hope also relates to a variety of educational and career-related constructs, including college student graduation rates (Snyder et al., 2002), career calling and academic satisfaction (Duffy, Allan, & Dik, 2011), and African American college students’ racial identity integration (Jackson & Neville, 1998).

Juntunen and Wettersten (2006) proposed the construct of work hope in their application of hope theory to career development. They defined work hope as “a positive motivational state that is directed at work and work-related goals and is composed of the presence of work-related goals and both the agency and the pathways for achieving those goals” (p. 97). Findings from a sample of urban adolescents highlighted the importance of the adolescents maintaining vocational hope in the face of significant adversity as a way to maintain connection with their commitment to the work role (Diemer & Blustein, 2007). Other research with urban high school students similarly documented the relevance of work hope within adolescent samples by demonstrating that work hope predicted achievement motivation beliefs (Kenny, Walsh-Blair, Blustein, Bempechat, & Seltzer, 2010 ). These findings suggest that examining beliefs about future work, or work hope, among adolescents may be useful as a mechanism to identify the presence of work-related goals and adolescents’ beliefs in their ability to meet those goals.

Financial Stress and Strain

Financial strain, stress, and insecurity refer to the perception that one’s financial resources are diminished and threatened (Creed & Macintyre, 2001). In his articulation of social learning theory (Bandura, 1986), Bandura posited that learning occurs within a social context and that children and adolescents learn from others via observational learning, imitation, and modeling (Ormrod, 1999). Because primary caregivers are often a child’s most influential relationship (e.g., Summers & Barber, 2010), familial stressors have been conceptualized to have a direct impact on development (Rickwood, 2005). As such, familial financial strain, stress, and insecurity can be conceptualized as a formative experience for adolescents who are often separating from caregivers and making educational and vocational decisions (e.g., Ungar, 2004).

Financial strain, stress, and insecurity have begun to receive attention in the United States and Europe among vocational psychologists for their role in predicting a variety of work-related outcomes for adult samples (e.g., Bingham, 2011; Dahling et al., 2013; Johnson & Jackson, 2012). Research (e.g., Dahling et al., 2013; Johnson & Jackson, 2012; Knabe & Ratzel, 2011; Lange, 2013; Price, Choi, & Vinokur, 2002) has documented that perceptions of financial stress and insecurity relate to a variety of health, mental health, and vocational outcomes among adults who are unemployed. For example, decreased financial concerns have been demonstrated to relate to higher levels of confidence in finding a job (Trougakos, Bull, Green, MacDermid, & Weiss, 2007), and greater financial hardship has been demonstrated to negatively relate to job search self-efficacy (Wanberg, Kanfer, & Rotundo, 1999). In another study (Dahling et al., 2013), greater perceived financial strain had direct and negative relationships with job search self-efficacy and indirect and negative relationships with job search outcome expectations and search goals via regional unemployment rates.

Yet, limited research has examined the implications of financial strain or stress on adolescent’s career development. Research has, however, demonstrated support for the relationships of financial strain with adolescent academic (e.g., Gutman & Eccles, 1999), psychological (e.g., Simons, Whitbeck, Conger, & Conger, 1991; Ullah, 1990), and socioemotional functioning (e.g., McLoyd et al., 1994). It seems likely, therefore, that increased perceptions of familial financial strain and stress among adolescents have implications for a variety of career-related outcomes, including beliefs about work. As such, the following hypothesis was proposed:
Hypothesis 1: Perceived financial strain will negatively relate to work hope beliefs.

Indirect Relations of Financial Stress and Strain to Work Hope

Support from caregivers has been demonstrated to have important implications for child and adolescent educational and vocational development. Supportive parenting behaviors relate to adolescent academic motivation (Plunkett & Bámaca-Gómez, 2003), academic performance (e.g., Hess & Holloway, 1984), and academic achievement among elementary school children and adolescents (e.g., Jeynes, 2005; Sanders, 1998). Primary caregiver support has also been demonstrated to relate positively to vocational constructs, including self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Ali & Saunders, 2006; Lapan, Hinkelman, Adams, & Turner, 1999), career aspirations, and career choice prestige among adolescent samples (Flores & O’Brien, 2002).

Limited research has examined the extent to which caregiver support for educational or occupational success interacts with familial financial stress and strain. Some research, however, has documented the relationship of caregiver financial stress and strain with unsupportive parenting practices (i.e., inconsistent parenting and disciplinary style; Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 2000; Davis & Mantler, 2004; Maythew & Lempers, 1998) and conflict between parents and adolescents (Conger, Ge, Elder, Lorenz, & Simons, 1994 ). Using longitudinal data from individuals sampled at Time 1 (age 16) and Time 2 (age 33), Schoon, Parsons, and Sacker (2004) demonstrated that socioeconomic adversity was a significant risk factor for educational failure and subsequent poor work and health outcomes. Support from parents counterbalanced some of these negative effects and contributed to greater levels of resilience among individuals who were from less privileged economic backgrounds.

In summary, familial financial stress and strain represents a contextual characteristic that may have important implications for adolescents (e.g., Forehand, Biggar, & Kotchick, 1998; Sameroff, Seifer, Barocas, Zax, & Greenspan, 1987). As such, we examined adolescents’ perceptions of their caregivers’ support for educational success as a potential moderator of the relationship between financial stress and strain and work beliefs. Based upon the conceptualization that positive caregiver support may serve as a protective mechanism that allows individuals to better cope with career barriers (e.g., Kenny et al., 2003; Perry, Liu, & Pabian, 2010), it seems possible that greater support from one’s caregivers may lessen the negative relationship between perceived financial strain and work hope among adolescents. The following exploratory hypothesis was proposed:
Hypothesis 2: Caregiver support will moderate the relationship between financial strain and work hope such that the negative relationship between financial stress and strain and work hope will be weaker when parental support is high and stronger when parental support is low.

Method

Participants

One hundred and nineteen adolescents aged 11–18 participated in the study (M = 15.57, SD = 1.50), and eight participants who started the survey did not complete the study. Seventy-three (61%) participants identified as male and 46 (38%) as female. The majority of participants identified as “straight” (n = 93, 77.5%). Seven participants identified as bisexual women, eight as bisexual men, one as questioning, and ten did not provide a response for sexual orientation. The majority of participants indicated that they were “White or European American” (n = 78). Four participants identified as “Asian or Asian American,” 16 as “Black or African American,” 19 as “Hispanic or Latino,” two as “American Indian/Native American,” and two as “Mixed.” With regard to self-reported social class category, three participants indicated as lower class, eight indicated as working class, 31 indicated as lower middle class, 57 indicated as middle class, 14 indicated as upper middle class, and two indicated as upper class (four did not respond). Participants were recruited from varied regions (e.g., urban, suburban, and rural) within the same Midwestern state.

In terms of high school class standing, 36 participants were freshman, 15 were sophomores, 30 were juniors, 32 were seniors, two indicated not currently in being enrolled in high school, and four did not indicate high school standing. All participants (except one) signified plans to attend at least some college. Participants specified a range of job titles in response to the question “What type of job do you want to have when you are an adult?” Responses included reporter, sales manager, police office, teacher, video game designer, dancer, athlete, engineer, flight attendant, and nurse.

Measures

Demographic and educational information

This questionnaire was author developed and included general questions that addressed gender, age, race/ethnicity, family income, and generation status. The educationally focused questions assessed class standing, intentions for attending college, and type of job sought postgraduation.

Financial Strain Index (FSI)

The FSI (Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988; Vinokur & Caplan, 1987) was used to measure participants’ current and anticipated perceived financial strain. This 3-item scale consists of the following questions: “How difficult is it for you to live on your total household income right now?”; “In the next 2 months, how much do you anticipate that you or your family will experience actual hardships such as inadequate housing, food, or medical attention?”; and “In the next 2 months, how much do you anticipate having to reduce your standard of living to the bare necessities of life?”

Participants rated their financial strain using a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). Total scores were summed to produce an index of financial strain ranging from 3 to 15, with higher scores indicating more perceived strain. Price, Choi, and Vinokur (2002) demonstrated that the FSI correlated as expected (r = .76) with other measures of financial strain that tap financially stressful events such as borrowing money to pay bills. αs for the FSI have been demonstrated to range from .86 to .88 with adult samples (Kessler et al., 1988; Vinokur & Kaplan, 1987). In this study, coefficient α was .89.

Financial Strain Scale (FSS)

The FSS (Ullah, 1990; Warr & Jackson, 1987) assesses individual’s level of financial stress and hardship. The FSS consists of 4 items that ask participants to indicate how often they have financial stress and worries. The 4 items are “Do you have serious financial worries?,” “Are you unable to do the things you like because of shortages of money?,” “Are you unable to do the things you need because of shortages of money?,” and “Are you unable to manage on the money you have?” Participants responded using a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). Responses were summed across items and total scores range from 4 to 20, with lower scores representing less financial stress and higher scores representing greater financial stress.

Ullah (1990) demonstrated that the FSS was significantly correlated with psychological distress among youth who were unemployed in Australia. Using samples of unemployed adults, Payne and Hartley (1987) indicated that the FSS related positively to financial behaviors that people have used to deal with their financial difficulties (e.g., borrowing money and selling goods). Dahling, Melloy, and Thompson (2013) demonstrated that the FSS related positively to perceived career barriers and negatively to satisfaction with life. Coefficient αs have been demonstrated to range from .77 to .80 across these three studies. In this study, α was .94.

Caregiver Support Index (CSI)

Adolescents’ perception of support for their educational success from their primary caregiver(s) was assessed using the CSI. The CSI is adapted from the Parent Support Index (Ali & Saunders, 2006), which is a 32-item measure designed to assess students’ perceptions of support received from their mother and father. In the PSI, the same 15 items are repeated and participants are asked to respond once in terms of support from their mother and once in terms of support from their father. For this study, the PSI was adapted to be more inclusive of families in which the primary caregiver might be a “mother, father, grandfather, grandmother, legal guardian, and so on.” Specifically, the items that comprised this revised CSI scale were reworded to assess level of support received from “your primary caregiver” rather than from “your mother” or “your father.” A sample items is, “Your Primary Caregiver’s attitude toward you getting good grades in school.”

The 15 items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly discouraging) to 5 (strongly encouraging). Two supplementary items were also presented to participants who were included in the CSI. These items were “Please indicate the amount of financial assistance that you believe that your primary caregiver would be willing to provide to fund your future vocational or educational plans (paying for college or moving away to start a new job)” and “Rate as best you can your primary caregiver’s attitudes toward helping you get alternative funding sources for your future vocational or educational plans (e.g., getting scholarships for college, G.I. Bill assistance, part-time employment, and small business loans).” These 2 items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale raning from 1 (none) to 5 (full) and 1 (strongly discouraging) to 5 (stronly encouraging), respectively. Summing responses to all 17 items derived total scores; higher scores indicated greater perceived caregiver support. Participants were instructed to respond to all 17 items based upon their overall perception of support from their caregiver(s) rather than to rank the support from a particular caregiver. Reliability and validity evidence for the original measure was addressed by Ali and Saunders (2006) who demonstrated evidence for concurrent validity via its positive correlation (r = .50, p = .01) with the Parental Support Scale (Farmer et al., 1981). Ali and Saunders (2006) demonstrated that the internal consistency reliability for the PSI was .89 within their sample. The coefficient α of the 17-item PSI for this sample was .77.

Work Hope Scale (WHS)

The WHS (Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006) is based on Snyder’s Hope Theory (1995, 2000) and assesses hope related to work. This 24-item measure includes three subscales: goals, agency, and pathways. These subscales evaluate aspects of vocational hope that include an individual’s sense of personal agency, knowledge of personal goals, and clarity about specific career pathways. Each subscale is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item includes “I have the skills and attitude needed to find and keep a meaningful job.” Items are summed across subscales, with higher total scores indicating greater levels of work hope.

In the initial development and validation study (Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006), the WHS was demonstrated to relate positively to career decision making (r = .75), work goals (r = .62), and vocational identity (r = .65). Two-week test–retest reliability was .90, and confirmatory factor analysis supported scoring the WHS as a total score (Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006). Coefficient αs have been demonstrated to range from .88 to .94 across several studies (e.g., Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006; Kenny et al., 2010; Thompson, Her, & Nitzarim, 2014; Yakushko & Sokolova, 2010). Coefficient α was .88 for this sample.

Procedure

Adolescents were recruited from a Midwestern region of the United States after institutional review board (IRB) approval was obtained. Participants learned of the study via e-mails to parents or legal guardians sent through neighborhood listservs and flyers posted in businesses. Parents or guardians of the adolescents were asked to provide assent for their adolescent’s participation. Potential participants received a link to an online survey to complete at their leisure. Participants who chose to provide their contact information received a US$5 gift card to Amazon.com for their participation in this study.

Results

Given the high intercorrelation between the FSI and the FSS (r = .86, p < .001) as well as their conceptual overlap, the two measures were combined for subsequent analyses. The α for the 7 items combined financial strain and stress scale was .95. Including self-reported social class as a control variable in the analyses that follow did not change the pattern of support for any of our hypotheses: Therefore, we do not comment further on the relationships of social class with the primary variables. The pattern of intercorrelations among all variables is presented in Table 1. Relationships were in the anticipated directions: higher levels of caregiver support for educational success related positively and significantly to work hope (r = .47, p < .001) and was negatively but not significantly related to financial stress and strain (r = −.19, p = .068).

Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Primary Variables.

Variable Mean SD n 1 2 3

1. WBS 4.89 0.74 105 .47 −.67

2. PCS 4.09 0.36 112 −.18

3. FSS 2.99 1.21 118

Note. WBS = Work Beliefs Scale; PCS = Primary Caregiver Support for Educational Success; FSS = Financial Stress and Strain.

*p ≤ .05, two-tailed. **p ≤ .01, two-tailed.

Consistent with Hypothesis 1, higher levels of financial stress and strain related significantly and negatively to work hope (r = −.67, p < .001). Hypothesis 2 was tested using bootstrapping (Shrout & Bolger, 2002) with an SPSS macro (version 22), PROCESS, developed by Hayes (2013). Hypothesis 2 stated that perceived support from caregivers for educational success would moderate the relationship between financial stress and strain and work beliefs. Results demonstrated support for the analysis, R = .78, R ² = .61, F(3, 97) = 51.18, p < .001, and are displayed in Table 2. The interaction term depicting the moderating effect of perceived caregiver support on the relationship between financial stress and strain and work hope was significant (β = −.30, p = .007) and contributed incrementally to the regression equation, ΔR ² = .03, F(1, 97) = 7.49, p = .01, indicating support for the moderating role of perceived caregiver. The direction of the moderation, however, was in the opposite direction than predicted (see Figure 1). Specifically, at higher levels of perceived caregiver support for educational success, the indirect effect was significantly negative (Bias Corrected 95% CI [−.61, −.38]) and at lower levels of perceived caregiver support for education, the negative indirect effect weakened (Bias Corrected 95% CI [−.35, −.04]).

Table 2.
Moderation of Caregiver Support in the Relationship Between Financial Stress and Strain and Work Beliefs Scale.

B SE t p Bias Corrected 95% CI

Constant 4.88 .05 102.16 .00 [4.78, 4.97]

PCS .55 .14 4.02 .00 [0.28, 0.83]

FSS −.36 .04 −9.26 .00 [−0.44, −0.29]

PCS × FSS −.30 .11 −2.74 .01 [−0.52, −0.08]

Note. n = 101. All p values two-tailed. CI = confidence interval; PCS = Primary Caregiver Support for Educational Success; FSS = Financial Stress and Strain.

*p ≤ .05, two-tailed. **p ≤ .01, two-tailed.

Figure 1.
Plot of perceived caregiver support for educational success as moderator of the relationship of financial strain and stress on work beliefs. Plot of relationship between work beliefs and financial stress and strain at higher and lower levels of perceived caregiver support for educational success.

Discussion

This study examined the relationship of perceived financial stress and strain with work hope in a diverse sample of adolescents living in the United States. As expected, higher levels of perceived financial stress and strain related to lowered work hope. We explored the role of caregiver support for educational success as a moderator of this relationship. Results demonstrated that perceived support for educational success from caregivers moderated the negative relationship between increased stress and strain and work hope, but the direction of this relationship trended in the opposite direction than was anticipated in the exploratory hypothesis. Results indicated that perceived financial stress and strain is relevant for adolescents. Higher levels of financial stress and strain related to lowered work hope. Although this relationship had not previously been empirically tested, these results are consistent with Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory proposition that adolescents are impacted by their families via observational learning. These results also extend those from previous research (e.g., Gutman & Eccles, 1999; Simons et al., 1991; Ullah, 1990) that documented the detrimental effects of financial strain on adolescent development in other domains (e.g., academic achievement, psychological health, and commitment to obtaining employment). The negative relationship between heightened levels of financial stress and strain and work hope also offers quantitative support for Thompson, Nitzarim, Her, and Dahling’s (2013) grounded theory investigation of the experience of vicarious unemployment among college students, which highlighted the implications of caregiver unemployment on college students’ perceived levels of stress related to their own educational and vocational development.

Although not included as a formal hypothesis, perceptions of caregiver support for educational success related to heightened work hope among the adolescents in this sample. This finding is consistent with prior research that has demonstrated that caregiver support (broadly defined) relates to adolescent career aspirations (e.g., Alliman-Brissett, Turner, & Skovholt, 2004; Turner & Lapan, 2002). The negative relationship between financial stress and strain and caregiver support for educational success also was consistent with expectations. Prior research has demonstrated that when a family is experiencing financial stress or strain, caregivers are often less present with their children (e.g., Davis & Mantler, 2004), more punitive in their discipline (e.g., Mistry, Vandewater, Huston, & McLoyd, 2002) and less consistent in their parenting (e.g., McLoyd, 1990).

We explored caregiver support for educational success as a moderator of the relationship between financial stress and strain and work beliefs. Results indicated that caregiver support for educational success moderated the relationship, but the direction was opposite than hypothesized. The negative relationship between financial stress and strain was strengthened among those who reported heightened perceived caregiver support for educational success.

A number of potential explanations seem important to consider regarding the results of this exploratory analysis. First, it seems possible that the directionality of the exploratory hypothesis was premature and that increased support for educational success as measured via the CSI may contribute to exacerbated levels of stress among adolescents who are already feeling stress associated with their families’ financial situation. In other words, if an adolescent is feeling stress and uncertainty related to familial finances, it may make sense that the adolescent interprets perceived support from their caregiver to be successful academically as added pressure rather than as encouragement. Another potential explanation is that these unexpected findings indicate an anomaly to the sample of this particular study (as reviewed in the limitations section below) and that further research would demonstrate that caregiver support for educational success does act as a buffer between perceived financial strain and work hope among adolescents. Finally, these findings highlight the need for future researchers to closely attend to issues related to measurement and construct validity. In particular, it seems likely that the CSI measures a specific form of support (i.e., support for educational success), which may function differently than global support or support in other domains (e.g., support for getting a job, support for going to college, and support for pursuing happiness). Future research is needed that more closely examines these constructs and their measurement.

Future research also may benefit from exploring additional constructs as moderators of the relationship between financial stress and strain and work hope beliefs or other career-related outcomes. Prior research has demonstrated that support from siblings (e.g., Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Tucker, Barber, & Eccles, 1997), peers (e.g., La Greca & Harrison, 2005), and teachers (e.g., Ali, Martens, Button, & Larma, 2011; Davis, 2003) may be particularly salient for adolescents. Examining relevant contextual characteristics such as regional unemployment rates or neighborhood characteristics (e.g., school rates of participation in free or reduced lunch programs, neighborhood poverty rates) as moderators also would increase our understanding of socioeconomic factors that may act as supports and barriers to career outcomes. For example, it seems likely that adolescents living in regions with higher unemployment or poverty rates, regardless of their individual family financial situations, may have more difficulty fostering work hope or confidence in their beliefs related to future academic or work success.

Limitations

These results should be interpreted in light of important limitations to the sample and methodology. First, participants were recruited from a Midwestern region of the United States. As such, these results may not be extended to adolescents living in other geographic regions where values (e.g., political affiliations and family expectations) and employment characteristics (e.g., regional unemployment rates, predominant regional industry, and regional poverty rates) may differ. Further research with more geographically varied samples is warranted.

Although the sample was diverse along a number of dimensions, the sample size is limited. This prevented us from being able to explore intersections among identities that may impact the proposed relationships. For example, future scholarship would benefit from the examination of gender differences among adolescents, particularly given that prior research related to familial financial strain has documented some evidence of such differences. Namely, in their study of gender differences in dyads of mothers/fathers and their adolescent daughters/sons, Mayhew and Lempers (1998) demonstrated that parental self-esteem mediated the relationship between financial strain and self-esteem for both mother/daughter and father/daughter dyads but not for mother/son or father/son dyads. In addition, this sample represented a fairly broad range of adolescent age (i.e., 11–18). Given documented differences in developmental levels across adolescent age (e.g., Kessler et al., 1996), it seems likely that experiences and perceptions related to financial strain and stress and work beliefs and expectations may differ across adolescent age. Future research with larger samples could examine the extent to which the relationships documented in this study differ based upon age.

With regard to the method, this study utilized a correlational and cross-sectional design. Causation or directionality of the tested relationships cannot be determined. This design also prevented us from understanding the longer term outcomes of higher versus lower levels of work hope beliefs among adolescents. In other words, although researchers and theorists (e.g., Diemer & Blustein, 2007; Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006) have described the relevance of hope in relation to work and education in adolescents’ lives, limited data exist highlighting the longer term implications of this construct on outcomes such as job satisfaction, job performance, and job attainment. Finally, all data collected were self-report. Although this allowed participants to explicate their perspectives, the data cannot be independently verified and may be subject to image management related to the topics of social class, financial stress and strain, and caregiver support. Future research using longitudinal designs and that incorporate more objective data would be useful in order to further understand the relationships that emerged in these data.

Finally, there are some limitations to measurement. As noted, the CSI was adapted for this study and this adapted measure has not been subjected to tests for its psychometric properties. In addition, the FSI and FSS have not previously been used with adolescent samples. Although the psychometric properties appeared promising, further testing is needed in order to ensure that these constructs and their measurement are appropriate for this sample.

Implications

These findings suggest that attending to adolescent levels of financial stress and strain within their families may have important implications for career and educational development and familial relationships. Family social class and levels of financial stress and strain should be considered as contextual characteristics that may be relevant to clients’ presenting concerns. Although financial stress and strain has not be explicitly integrated into career theories to date, social class, socioeconomic status, and other contextual considerations such as familial and environmental supports and barriers have been integrated into SCCT. Findings from this study highlight the need for career theorists and practitioners to continue to think complexly about social class-related experiences and variables that are likely to have implications for career development.

Career counselors will benefit from their own awareness of financial and economic circumstances that are likely to impact their clients. As suggested by Thompson, Cole, and Nitzarim (2012), acknowledging financial stress and strain in clinical practice may provide an opportunity for the practitioner to validate the client’s experiences and work with the client to identify needed interventions. Career counselors and educators also are encouraged to consider financial strain and stress in psychoeducation and career intervention programming directed toward adolescents and their families. Such interventions may offer a space for adolescents and their families to experience support and connection in the midst of what might otherwise be a stigmatized and isolating experience.

Variable	Mean	SD	n	2	3
1. WBS	4.89	0.74	105	.47**	−.67**
2. PCS	4.09	0.36	112		−.18
3. FSS	2.99	1.21	118

	B	SE	t	p	Bias Corrected 95% CI
Constant	4.88	.05	102.16	.00	[4.78, 4.97]
PCS	.55	.14	4.02	.00	[0.28, 0.83]
FSS	−.36	.04	−9.26	.00	[−0.44, −0.29]
PCS × FSS	−.30	.11	−2.74	.01	[−0.52, −0.08]

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was partially supported by the Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin–Madison.

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