Measuring Career Support in Women’s Private Domain: Insights from Patriarchal Contexts

Abstract

Discriminatory family practices such as early marriage, limited mobility and restricted access to education often hinder women’s professional development in patriarchal societies. In some instances, women are prohibited from working because employment requires public interaction. Women who enter the workforce are frequently expected to prioritize family responsibilities over their professional commitments. As a result, career-related family support becomes crucial in sustaining and advancing women’s careers in patriarchal contexts. However, research on the impact of career-related family support on women’s careers in patriarchal societies remains limited, primarily due to the absence of gender-specific tools to assess the career support perceived by women professionals in these contexts. Addressing this gap, we propose a new measure—career social support from women’s private domain (CSS-WP)— to assess the career-related support women receive from their private or non-work domains. Following a multi-phase scale development process, we developed and validated a new measure with three studies of independent sample groups from the patriarchal context of Bangladesh. The CSS-WP measure can assist human resource professionals, career counsellors and leaders in assessing career support for women in patriarchal contexts, thereby guiding initiatives to improve work-life balance, retention and gender diversity.

Keywords

career support career social support scale patriarchy scale development women’s careers

In patriarchal societies, women face the dual challenge of advancing their careers while conforming to traditional roles as daughters, wives, daughters-in-law and mothers (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). Their career progression is often constrained by gendered societal expectations (Woodhams et al., 2015), with patriarchy imposing restrictions on women’s conduct, education, financial independence, marital age, inheritance rights and public interactions (Alwedinani, 2017; Kandiyoti, 1988; Moghadam, 2004; Walby, 1989). In private patriarchy, practiced within domestic spheres, women typically bear a disproportionate share of household chores and caregiving responsibilities, reflecting traditional gender roles that can limit their personal and professional opportunities (Sidani et al., 2015). Private patriarchy frequently discourages women from engaging in paid work because it necessitates interaction with the public in mixed-gender environments. Paid employment is deemed acceptable only if it does not interfere with the fulfillment of household responsibilities (Karam & Afiouni, 2017). Moreover, women in patriarchal societies often need to seek permission from male family members to enter the workforce before marriage and obtain consent from spouses and parents-in-law to continue working after marriage (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). Practices of private patriarchy thus play a significant role in shaping women’s professional decisions and opportunities, compelling them to rely heavily on support from the private domain to advance in their careers.

Patriarchy prevails in many countries of Africa, the Middle East and South and East Asia, such as Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan (Moghadam, 1992), Bangladesh (Cain et al., 1979), China, Korea, Japan (Ko et al., 2003; Sechiyama, 2013), India (Hapke, 2013), Nigeria (Adisa et al., 2019) and Saudi Arabia (Sharabi, 1988). In patriarchal societies, where discriminatory family practices and societal expectations hinder women’s professional growth (Karam & Afiouni, 2014; Sidani et al., 2015), career support from the private domain is crucial for helping women navigate the transition from private (home and family) to public (workplace) domain. In these contexts, support from the private domain becomes a key factor in shaping women’s careers as gendered practices in the personal sphere often impact their efficacy and performance in the professional sphere (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). Since women in these societies frequently face barriers to accessing support from colleagues or supervisors due to restrictions on their public engagement (Moghadam, 2004), career support from the private domain becomes even more critical for their professional advancement. Such support plays a vital role in helping women overcome patriarchal obstacles by offering guidance, resources and opportunities that empower them to navigate challenges and succeed in their careers.

Career experts have emphasized the significance of contextual and environmental factors in understanding women’s career development in male-dominated settings (Fouad et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2018). Despite this, there is a significant lack of research that fully explores these factors and their impact on women’s career outcomes, particularly in patriarchal contexts where societal norms and gender roles frequently create additional barriers to women’s professional advancement (Al-Asfour et al., 2017; Sarwar & Imran, 2019). Furthermore, there remains a significant lack of gender-specific tools to assess career support for women in patriarchal contexts where men hold dominance over women. To date, the only career support measure that focuses exclusively on women is the five-factor CSS-WE scale by Kim et al. (2024). This measure includes instrumental, inclusive, emotional, informational, institutional and societal support. However, this scale is specifically designed for career development of engineering students in Western contexts. Other measures, such as those by Lent et al. (2001) offer valuable insights into contextual career support but do not address the unique challenges women face in patriarchal societies. Additionally, many social support scales emphasize general family or spousal support (i.e., Ferguson et al., 2016; King et al., 1995; Matthews et al., 2010) while overlooking the critical roles played by other family members, such as parents and parents-in-law. These omissions highlight the need for a scale that more comprehensively captures career support from women’s private domains in these contexts. The absence of such studies and measures limits our understanding of the impact of career support on women’s progression in patriarchal environments.

Our study seeks to develop a reliable and valid tool to assess the perceived career support that women receive in patriarchal settings. We develop a new measure to capture the unique dimensions of career social support (CSS) that women in patriarchal contexts receive from their private domain, including from parents, parents-in-law, spouses and friends. While initially developed in Bangladesh, the core constructs—such as familial encouragement, spousal support and the role of close social networks—are relevant across various socio-cultural settings where traditional gender norms influence women’s career choices.

This research will provide valuable insights into the unique challenges women face, contributing to the design of gender-specific career development programs and interventions. In turn, it will enhance our understanding of the support women require, ultimately helping to create more inclusive and empowering career pathways that foster greater opportunities and equality for women in these difficult environments. Developing gender-specific tools to assess the perceived career support for women in patriarchal contexts is crucial for several reasons. First, such a scale can offer deeper insights into the unique challenges and needs faced by women in these environments (Sengar & Shah, 2024), which are often overlooked by general social support measures (Mavriplis et al., 2010). Second, this specificity allows for the design of targeted support programs that address the distinct barriers women face in patriarchal contexts, improving their career progression and retention (Ali et al., 2015). Finally, by using a precise and gender-sensitive career support scale, organizations and institutions can create environments that better empower women in patriarchal contexts, fostering greater gender equality and opportunity.

Literature Review

This section will discuss the literature related to patriarchy, social support and career social support.

Patriarchal Social Structure

Patriarchy refers to a societal structure where men exert dominance over women through practices that subordinate females and uphold male supremacy (Walby, 1990). The patriarchal system has two categories: public patriarchy which is observed in the public sphere, and private patriarchy which manifests in the private sphere, particularly within households (Walby, 1990). In public patriarchy, women face oppression across various dimensions including the state, culture and paid employment. The impact of public patriarchy on women’s careers is evident through its endorsement of gender inequality, recognized as a prominent obstacle to effective career planning for women (Schulz & Enslin, 2014). In private patriarchy, women experience domestic oppression due to prejudiced gender expectations that do not apply to their male counterparts (Shakiba et al., 2021). For instance, women are required to obtain permission from male family members for activities such as leaving the home or visiting friends (Hapke, 2013), seeking employment and initiating a business or traveling (Moghadam, 2004).

Because of these gendered customs, patriarchal households generally expect women to primarily focus on domestic activities such as cooking, cleaning and childcare, diminishing their participation in paid employment to a secondary position (Karam & Afiouni, 2017). Women are frequently discouraged from engaging in paid work that involves public exposure or interactions with the opposite gender. Approval for participating in paid work is contingent on the satisfactory fulfilment of household responsibilities (Karam & Afiouni, 2017).

Career Support for Women in Patriarchal Contexts

Career support for women in patriarchal contexts aligns with Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), which highlights the influence of external factors on career development (Lent et al., 2013). In patriarchal societies, barriers such as restrictive gender roles and societal expectations often lower women’s self-efficacy and limit their career opportunities (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024; Sengar & Shah, 2024). However, non-work or private domains such as family or friends can boost women’s confidence, reduce work-family conflict and improve their career outcomes in patriarchal contexts by providing emotional support and practical help to navigate gender-based challenges and balance societal expectations with professional responsibilities.

The Psychology of Working Theory (PWT; Duffy et al., 2016) posits that social support serves as a critical buffer against career barriers including marginalization and economic deprivation. In patriarchal contexts, women often face systemic obstacles such as gender discrimination, limited access to education and restricted mobility at home that can hinder their career development. Social support from women’s private domains can play a vital role in helping women navigate these patriarchal barriers. According to PWT, such support not only mitigates the negative impact of these challenges but also fosters resilience, motivation and a sense of belonging, all of which are essential for career advancement. By offering emotional encouragement, practical resources and career guidance, career-related social support from private domain can equip women in patriarchal societies with the necessary resources and skills to overcome external barriers and pursue their professional goals despite the structural inequalities they face.

Social Support and Career Social Support

Social support can be provided in the forms of affection, empathy, encouragement, feedback and practical help (Thoits, 2011). These forms of social support represent the three common types of support: emotional, instrumental and informational. Emotional support refers to understanding others and expressing one’s compassion and concern for them (Xu & Burleson, 2001). Informational support refers to offering guidance or feedback to assist a person in resolving challenging issues (Cutrona & Russell, 1990). Instrumental support refers to supporting a person by doing tasks on their behalf (Aycan & Eskin, 2005) as well as by offering caregiving (Thoits, 2011). Although social support can be provided by both work and non-work domains (Brough & Pears, 2004), the work and career implications of non-work domains have been less explored.

Career social support can be conceptualized as a form of social support that helps individuals navigate career challenges and advance professionally. For instance, in the work domain, a supervisor can support an employee’s career by offering feedback on their performance (i.e., informational career social support), providing flexible working hours to balance work and personal life (i.e., instrumental career social support), or offering encouragement during challenging times (i.e., emotional career social support). Similarly, in the family domain, a spouse may support a partner’s career by taking on household duties to allow more time for work (i.e., instrumental career social support), providing emotional encouragement during career setbacks (i.e., emotional career social support), or offering advice on career decisions based on their own experiences (i.e., informational career social support). In patriarchal contexts, where women are often expected to prioritize domestic duties, having support from family members can ease the burden of managing both work and home life (Adisa et al., 2019; Karam & Afiouni, 2017).

Measures of Career Social Support

The most widely used scale for measuring contextual supports in career development was constructed by Lent et al. (2001) and has been applied in numerous empirical studies (Flores et al., 2020; Lee & Flores, 2019; Lent et al., 2013). However, this scale was originally adapted from a general math and science domain measure to focus specifically on engineering students in Western educational contexts. There is another five-factor career support scale for women (CSS-WE; Kim et al., 2024), which is designed for female engineering students in Western contexts. There is, however, no gender-specific instrument that assesses career support for working women in general, particularly one that accounts for the contextual challenges women face in patriarchal societies.

Most of the existing social support measures focus primarily on support within the work domain. A few measures that focuses on work-related support provided by the non-work domains, such as Family Support Inventory for Workers (King et al., 1995), Work-related Spousal Support (Ferguson et al., 2016) and Work Social Support (Matthews et al., 2010), either consider family support in general without specifying the source of support (e.g., parents or other family members) or focuses exclusively on spousal support. These measures overlook the distinct roles of family members beyond the spouse, particularly parents and parents-in-law, who play a significant part in either facilitating or restricting women’s careers in patriarchal contexts. As a result, when used to assess women’s careers in such environments, these measures fail to capture the support provided by essential non-work or private relationships. In patriarchal contexts, where women often face domestic suppression and marry early (Walby, 1989), a comprehensive understanding of career social support cannot be achieved without considering the career-related support women receive from their private domains. Moreover, the items in these measures do not reflect all three types of social support (emotional, instrumental and informational). These limitations in existing measures highlight the need for a scale that specifically addresses the unique career support needs of women in patriarchal societies, which is the focus of the current study.

Methodology

To develop and validate CSS from women’s private domain (CSS-WP) scale, a three-phase scale development procedure has been followed based on prior research (Anderson & Gerbing, 1991; Hinkin, 1998) and recent scale development exemplars (Cacciotti et al., 2020).

Research Context

Data for this research has been collected from women living and working in the patriarchal context of Bangladesh. Bangladesh serves as a compelling example of a patriarchal context due to its deeply ingrained societal norms and structures that prioritize male authority and control. In many households, traditional gender roles dictate that women have limited decision-making power, particularly concerning employment, finance, and family matters (Sultana, 2011). Studies indicate that women often require permission from male family members for mobility and access to resources (Rahman et al., 2017), reflecting systemic discrimination. Furthermore, society often expects women to prioritize family responsibilities over career aspirations (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). This interplay of familial and societal factors underscores the challenges women face within a patriarchal system, making Bangladesh a key example for understanding the career experiences of women in patriarchal contexts.

In the context of Bangladesh, several socio-cultural and economic factors significantly impact the career-related support for married women. Bangladesh is among the top 10 countries with the highest prevalence of child marriage, with 51% of girls marrying before the age of 18 (UNICEF, 2021). Despite improvements in education, women’s literacy in Bangladesh remains at 74% (The World Bank, 2021). Furthermore, only 36% of women participate in the labour force, compared to 80% of men (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Gender norms and discrimination continue to restrict women’s access to higher-paying and decision-making roles, as evidenced by the gender gap in labour force participation (World Economic Forum, 2020). These socio-cultural and economic challenges shape the experiences of Bangladeshi women in paid employment and highlight the need for targeted career support to address these systemic barriers.

Phase 1: Item Development and Validation

Conceptual Propositions

The social support definition that guides our conceptual understanding identifies social support as the interpersonal transaction involving emotional expression of concern, tangible assistance and advice (House, 1983). The career social support (CSS) definition that guides our conceptual proposition is that career social support is a form of career-related social support received from work and non-work based networks of supportive relationships (Marcinkus et al., 2007) that helps individuals navigate their career challenges and advance in their careers (Matthews et al., 2010).

We define CSS from the private domain as career-related emotional, instrumental and informational support stemming from various non-work sources. We conceptualize CSS-WP as a reflective construct because the four sources share a common theme, and CSS from the private domain is reflected through support from these four sources (Diamantopoulos et al., 2008; MacKenzie et al., 2005). We focused on sources of career support—parents, spouses, parents-in-law and friends—because in patriarchal contexts like Bangladesh, the source of support significantly influences women’s career development (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). Each source serves distinct functions: for instance, friends may provide networking opportunities, while family members can either enable or restrict women’s mobility and choices. Previous research underscores that the effectiveness of social support depends not only on its type but also on its source (Cutrona & Russell, 1990; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), especially in contexts where family influence is deeply embedded in women’s lives. Figure 1 demonstrates our guiding assumptions.

Figure 1.

Conceptualization of career social support (CSS) from private domain.

Item Generation

Following scale development guidelines (Hinkin, 1998), we used multiple approaches to develop gender-specific career support items that are relevant to the experiences of women in patriarchal contexts. First, we examined existing social support measures that assess work-related support from non-work domains. Specifically, we searched the literature for gender-specific career support measures that address the experiences of women in patriarchal societies. Our review of existing career support measures highlights the need for a gender-specific career support measure that focuses on working women, particularly those living and working in patriarchal contexts. This support measure should specifically address the career-related assistance women receive from their private relationships within the domestic domain and incorporate the emotional, instrumental and informational aspects of social support to more effectively meet their diverse needs in these contexts.

Second, we consulted the literature around patriarchy, social support and women’s careers to identify key enablers as well as barriers of women’s careers. Patriarchy and women’s careers literature have highlighted the roles of spouses, parents and parents-in-law in women’s personal and professional lives (Karam & Afiouni, 2017; Moghadam, 1992; Walby, 1989). Social support literature indicates that friends and family serve as independent and internally consistent sources of social support (Procidano & Heller, 1983), with men typically tend to seek support from their spouses and women from their friends and families (van Daalen et al., 2005). Further, spouses and parents-in-law have been identified to play important roles in married women’s careers in patriarchal societies (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). The theoretical rationale for treating “friends” as a distinct source lies in the unique role they play in providing informal, emotional and peer-based support (Brannan et al., 2013). Unlike family, which often offers support based on traditional roles, or professional networks focused on career advancement, friends provide a more personal form of encouragement and shared experience (Bassuk et al., 2002; Griffin et al., 2006). This distinct type of support can significantly influence career decisions and resilience, particularly for women navigating patriarchal contexts.

Next, we reviewed the social support literature to identify work-related social support measures applicable to assessing career support for women in patriarchal societies. We found that most existing measures primarily focus on support within the workplace, with only a few addressing work-related support from non-work domains. Finally, we adopted an inductive approach to develop the initial item pool based on the qualitative study by Ashraf and Jepsen (2024). This study examines the impact of private patriarchy on women’s careers through 40 semi-structured interviews with educated and working women from the patriarchal context of Bangladesh. We analysed the published quotes from these interviews (Shao et al., 2023) to ensure our items accurately reflect CSS from women’s private domains in patriarchal contexts. For instance, the following two interview quotes were categorized as career-related emotional, instrumental and informational support from parents-in-law and parents.

“I was able to put in long hours at work due to my parents-in-law being supportive. With their support, I could become head of the department at the age of 34 when I had a toddler at home (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024, p. 18).

“I think I could have done better in my career if I were given the opportunity by my parents to go out and mix with others. I missed many career opportunities due to my limited networking (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024, p. 26).

We then generated generic statements describing the construct to be developed (DeVellis, 2017). To illustrate, we developed items that address the emotional, instrumental and informational career support women receive from key individuals in their private domain, including their parents, spouse, parents-in-law, and friends. The process resulted in an initial list of 29 items that were repeated across the four sources to a total of 116 items. Each of these 29 items focuses on a specific support type: emotional, instrumental and informational.

Content Validation

To assess content validity, we followed the technique employed by MacKenzie et al. (1991). As a part of this process, 30 work-life, gender, and career academic experts were emailed to review the initial items, and 24 responses were received. To ensure they represent the main population of interest (Anderson & Gerbing, 1991), the majority of experts were women from patriarchal societies, with some from Western contexts to diversify our expert pool. These experts included scholars from both Western and non-Western academic institutions with expertise in work-life balance, gender studies and career development. Additionally, development practitioners in Bangladesh who focus on gender issues and work directly with women were included to provide practical insights and ensure the contextual relevance of the items.

Participants were invited to complete a 10-min item-sort task survey on the Qualtrics platform. The survey started with the ethics-approved participant information and consent form. Experts were provided with contextual information (i.e., patriarchy), four sources of support (i.e., spouse, parents, parents-in-law and friends) and the three types of support (i.e., emotional, instrumental and informational). They were asked to match the 29 support items according to the sources and types. A comment option was available to capture their suggestions.

Scale development scholars suggest that an item meets content validity standards if it is correctly classified by at least 75% of the respondents (Hinkin, 1998). Out of our 29 items, 20 items were correctly classified as emotional, instrumental, and informational support by at least 80% of the experts. However, the experts suggested three out of the 20 items contained item overlap and so were merged with other conceptually similar items. For instance, two items “My spouse provides me with comfort to discuss any personal issues that impact my work with him” and “My spouse provides me with comfort to discuss any professional issues with him” were merged as one item “He makes me comfortable to discuss any issues that impact my work”. The remaining 11 items that scored below 75% were discarded. The experts suggested including friends as a private domain support source.

Considering the expert validation and suggestions, our revised list contained 17 statements that focused on support from spouse. Of these 17 items, seven focused on emotional CSS, six on instrumental CSS and four on informational CSS. The remaining 16 items focussed on support from parents, 16 items on support from parents-in-law and another 16 items focussed on support from friends. We retained some redundancy in the final item pool as an integral part of internal consistency (DeVellis, 2017). As such, we had a total of 65 items reflecting all three support types (emotional, instrumental and informational) that can stem from the four private sources of support.

Phase 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis

In Phase 2, we conducted two studies to explore the number of factors impacting the variables and analyse which variables to group together (DeCoster, 1998).

Study 1

This study aimed to explore the underlying factor structure of the CSS-WP scale. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the proposed scale (65-item) was conducted to achieve this aim (Hinkin, 1998).

Sample

Experts suggest that at least 150 responses are required for accurate factor analysis results (Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988). Following this guideline, 200 married female undergraduate or postgraduate students, employed at least part-time at present, or full-time in the past constituted our initial sample group. This demographic selection allows for an exploration of perspectives involving spouses and parents-in-law as educated early-career women in patriarchal contexts often encounter obstacles to working outside the home and may be compelled to quit following marriage (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024).

Data Collection

Eight out of the ten contacted Bangladeshi university program coordinators agreed to participate and shared our survey email with their students. A total of 200 responses were received, out of which 33 responses were discarded due to missing data, not matching the sampling criteria, or not responding effortfully to attention check questions. In the final sample of 167, 105 (63%) were postgraduate and 62 (36%) were undergraduate students with an average age of 27.4 years. They were enrolled in various academic disciplines, including business, management, sociology and other related fields. All were married with 63 (37%) having one or more children. Of the 129 women currently employed, (70) 54% were working full-time and 59 (46%) part-time. The remaining women had been employed before.

Measures

Participants responded to each of the 65 items on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) and answered a set of open-ended questions. To ensure clarity and accuracy, survey measures were translated following Brislin (1970)’s back-translation procedure. A Bengali academic proficient in both languages translated the text from English to Bengali. The back-translation was then conducted by another Bengali academic also fluent in both English and Bengali. The survey included item check questions.

Analysis and Results

The CSS-WP scale items underwent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using SPSS Version 28. The data met suitability criteria with a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy value above .6, Barlett Test of Sphericity significance below .05, and correlation coefficients of .3 and above (Williams et al., 2010). The dataset communalities of higher than .5 with high item to factor ratio suggested the sample size of 167 is adequate (MacCallum et al., 1999). Scree plot results (Rogers, 2022; Sakr et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2010) demonstrating a flattening of the line curve from factor 5 onward indicated the possible presence of 4 factors. Parallel analysis (O’Connor, 2000), too, suggested four factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 (Meagher et al., 2023).

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using principal component analysis (PCA) with oblique rotation was conducted, imposing a four-factor extraction due to the absence of a prior model (Gorsuch, 1983). This analysis accounted for 65% of the total variance. Following the removal of items with low factor loadings (<.40), cross-loadings and <.15 difference in factor loadings (Hinkin, 1998; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006; Zhang et al., 2022), 63 items were loaded onto four factors representing CSS from parents, spouse, parents-in-law and friends.

Study 2

In Study 2, a further EFA with a new sample was conducted to explore and understand the latent factors and to optimize the proposed scale items. We clarified and revised the wording (e.g., changing husband to spouse) of the 63 items from Study 1 based on feedback from several respondents. We merged some items of similar support type (McKibbin et al., 2018), for instance, “My parents empathize if I have a tough day at work” and “My parents make me comfortable to discuss any issues that impact my work with them” were clustered as one item “My parents show concern when I have work problems”. Some items were revised to cover a broader context. For instance, the item “My spouse has emotionally supported me in my decision of not becoming a mother immediately after my marriage, which has facilitated my career plans” was revised as “My spouse emotionally supports me in my work and life related decisions, which facilitates my career plans”. Following the iterative process of combining theory and empirical data to refine scale items, we added one informational item each to all the four private sources. Following the iterative process of combining theory and empirical data to refine scale items, we added one informational item each to all four private sources. Finally, the item list for Study 2 EFA contained 56 items.

Sample

We surveyed 320 highly educated working women in Bangladesh to ensure the broad applicability of the CSS-WP scale (Hinkin, 1998). Participants were recruited through a local data collection agency and received a coffee voucher worth 100 taka (approximately USD $0.90) as a token of appreciation. The final sample consisted of 300 full-time working women, with an average age of 35.8 years and 10.1 years of work experience. Among them, 255 (85%) held postgraduate degrees, and 240 (80%) had one or more children. The majority were married and could be classified as belonging to the middle or upper socioeconomic class. Participants were employed in industries such as banking, fast-moving consumer goods and telecommunications.

Analysis

Using SPSS Version 28, we conducted EFA on 56 items employing principal axis factoring (PAF) with oblique rotation as we already had a model from the previous EFA (Gorsuch, 1983), and PAF aligns closely with the development of new scales (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Since findings from Study 1 and 2 suggested a four-factor solution, we conducted the current EFA with four factors. We retained 53 items after excluding three with non-significant loadings (<.4; Hinkin, 1998; Zheng et al., 2022). The factors included support from parents-in-law, parents, spouse and friends.

To create an efficient and reliable scale for the current study and future research, we chose to develop a shortened version of the scale. Statistically, we followed the approach of prior studies (Liden et al., 2008; Meagher et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2022) by retaining the top five items per factor based on their factor loadings, which reflected the strongest associations with the underlying constructs. Higher loadings indicate a stronger representation of the factor, thus enhancing the reliability and validity of the factor structure. Consequently, we selected items with the top five loadings on each factor ensuring that the deleted items have the lowest contribution to the scale’s internal consistency (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Theoretically, our decision was based on previous research (Lent & Brown, 2006; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006) suggesting that retaining fewer items per factor improves model interpretability and maintains construct validity, ensuring factors remain focused and conceptually coherent for meaningful interpretation and practical application.

This process resulted in 20 items with five items on each factor, which together accounted for 66% of total variance. To ensure that item deletion has not caused any changes to the factor structure, we re-ran the EFA of the 20 items on a four-factor solution (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Re-running the EFA confirmed the factor structure’s stability. The final 20 items and their corresponding factor loadings are listed in Table 1. The Cronbach alphas were excellent at .86 (CSS from spouse), .90 (CSS from parents), .81 (CSS from parents-in-law) and .84 (CSS from friends). Moderate correlations ranging from .26 to .46 indicated the factors are independent of each other (see Table 2). Items on the CSS-WP scale, such as “My spouse substantially supports me if I need to study further to develop my career” and “My parents-in-law emotionally support me in my work and life-related decisions, which facilitates my career plans,” reflect the concept of “women seeking career support and approval after marriage.” These items capture a key societal aspect of patriarchy, where women often need the consent or backing of male family members to pursue career development opportunities.

Table 1.

Exploratory factor analysis results for the 20-item CSS-WP in study 2.

Items	Factors
Items	CSS from spouse	CSS from parents	CSS from parents-in-law	CSS from friends
1. My spouse feels proud of my work achievements	.80
2. My spouse substantially supports me to have a career after marriage and motherhood	.80
3. My spouse emotionally supports me in my work and life related decisions, which facilitates my career plans	.75
4. My spouse substantially supports me if I need to study further to develop my career	.72
5. My spouse helps me solve my work problems	.66
6. My parents guide me to develop my professional skills		.86
7. My parents guide me to improve my work performance		.85
8. My parents provide constructive feedback on my work and life issues		.77
9. My parents emotionally support me in my work and life related decisions, which facilitates my career plans		.70
10. My parents show concern when I have work problems		.68
11. My parents-in-law offer practical suggestions from their work-related knowledge and experience			.87
12. My parents-in-law emotionally supports me in my work and life related decisions, which facilitates my career plans			.81
13. My parents-in-law are ready to contribute financially to support my education and other career development activities if needed			.79
14. My parents-in-law substantially support me if I need to study further to develop my career			.78
15. My parents-in-law provide constructive feedback on my work and life issues			.76
16. My friends guide me to improve my work performance				.77
17. My friends help me solve my work problems				.71
18. My friends provide constructive feedback on my work and life issues				.67
19. My friends introduce me to people who are influential to my career				.59
20. My friends offer practical suggestions from their work-related knowledge and experience				.59

Table 2.

Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations and Coefficient alphas for the Four Factors in Study 2.

Factors	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4
1. CSS from spouse	6.02	.74	.86
2. CSS from parents	5.79	.77	.26^**	.90
3. CSS from parents-in-law	5.24	1.08	.46^**	.38^**	.81
4. CSS from friends	5.58	.74	.20^**	.37^**	.28^**	.84

N = 300; *p < .05 (two-tailed); **p < .01 (two-tailed); ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Phase 3: Validation Studies

Following established scale development guidelines (Hinkin, 1998), the next phase was factor and construct validity of the new measure.

Study 3

Study 3 comprised three distinct parts. The first part was conducted to confirm the factor structure of the final 20 items. The second part was conducted to assess the convergent and discriminant validity of CSS-WP scale. The last part was to examine the relationships between CSS-WP and other theoretically relevant constructs. As a procedural remedy to common method variance (CMV; Cooper et al., 2020), a time lag between the variables ensured temporal separation (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Responses on CSS-WP were collected at Time 1 while responses on the remaining measures were collected approximately one week later at Time 2 (Johnson et al., 2011).

Sample

An additional but similar sample of highly educated Bangladeshi working women, similar to the initial sample, was recruited for this study through a local data collection agency and compensated with a coffee voucher worth 100 taka (USD $0.90). The final sample consisted of 200 full-time working women, with an average age of 36.2 years and 9.7 years of professional experience. Among them, 187 (93.5%) held postgraduate degrees and 191 (95.5%) had one or more children. All participants were married and could be classified as belonging to the middle or upper socioeconomic class. They were employed in industries such as banking, fast-moving consumer goods and telecommunications.

Measurement Validity

To examine whether the items load strongly on their corresponding factors, we conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the newly developed scale using Mplus Version 8.0.

Measures

The 20-item CSS-WP using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) was used in this Study.

Analysis

Since it has been conceptualized that CSS from women’s private domain is reflected in the support they receive from their private relationships such as parents, parents-in-law, spouse and friends, we modeled the relationships between measures of each first-order dimension and the second-order latent construct as reflective (MacKenzie et al., 2011). The measurement model of private CSS was thus developed as a second-order multidimensional construct (Edwards, 2001).

We conducted a CFA of the hypothesized four-factor model and compared the hypothesized model with six alternative models. Given the higher-order multidimensional construct, we further verified the fitness of the second-order multidimensional construct (Zheng et al., 2022). First, we compared our hypothesized second-order model (i.e., Model 1) with two other parsimonious models. We then compared Model 1 with four other models on the four dimensions. For instance, Model 4 combines CSS from parents, CSS from parents-in-law, CSS from spouse in one factor and CSS from friends as the other factor; Model 5 combines CSS from parents and CSS from friends in one factor, and CSS from parents-in-law and CSS from spouse in another factor; Model 6 combines CSS from parents and CSS from parents-in-law in one factor, CSS from spouse in a separate factor and CSS from friends in the other separate factor; and Model 7 combines CSS from parents and CSS from spouse in one factor, CSS from parents-in-law in a separate factor and CSS from friends in the other separate factor.

Measurement Model of CSS-WP

We conducted a CFA of the hypothesized four-factor model and compared the hypothesized model with six alternative models. Given the higher order multidimensional construct, we further verified the fitness of the second-order multidimensional construct (Zheng et al., 2022). First, we compared our hypothesized second-order model (i.e., Model 1) with two other parsimonious models. We then compared Model 1 with four other models. As shown in Table 3, the hypothesized four-factor model with second-order structure demonstrated better fit (CFI = .96; TLI = .96; SRMR = .03; chi-square = 416, df 166, p < .001) than the six alternative models. These results confirmed that the 20-item CSS-WP scale is a second-order construct with four dimensions: CSS from spouse, CSS from parents, CSS from parents-in-law and CSS from friends. Each observation variable had loadings on the latent variables exceeding 0.40, meeting the standard criteria and indicating the optimal nature of the second-order multidimensional structure (Zheng et al., 2022). Hence, the analysis confirmed that the items are good indicators of their corresponding factor.

Table 3.

Measurement model of CSS-WP with other alternative models in study 3.

Model	x²	df	Δx² (Δdf)	CFI	TLI	SRMR
Model 1	416	166		.96	.96	.03
Model 2	1298	170	882*** (4)	.83	.81	.05
Model 3	1401	170	985*** (4)	.82	.79	.62
Model 4	1049	169	633*** (3)	.87	.85	.05
Model 5	1222	169	806*** (3)	.84	.82	.05
Model 6	965	167	549*** (1)	.88	.86	.05
Model 7	883	169	467*** (3)	.89	.88	.04

N = 200; Δx² (Δdf) are compared with Model 1; *p < .05 (two-tailed); **p < .01 (two-tailed); ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Model 1 = The hypothesized second-order four-factor model.

Model 2 = All 20 items under one factor, CSS from private domain.

Model 3 = All 20 items on four factors (CSS from parents, parents-in-law, spouse and friends) with correlations among factors set to zero.

Model 4 = Combining CSS from parents, parents-in-law, spouse items in one factor and CSS from friends as the other factor.

Model 5 = Combining CSS from parents and friends in one factor and combining CSS from parents-in-law and spouse in another factor.

Model 6 = Combining CSS from parents and parents-in-law in one factor, CSS from spouse in second factor, CSS from friends in third factor.

Model 7 = Combining CSS from parents and spouse in one factor, CSS from parents-in-law in second factor and CSS from friends in third factor.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Study 3 also explores convergent and discriminant validity (Hinkin, 1998) to further establish the credibility and relevance of the newly developed scale.

Measures

All responses were measured on a seven-point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly agree and 7 = strongly disagree. Since several validated measures were developed in English, these scales were translated into Bangla and, where necessary, culturally adapted to ensure their relevance and clarity, following the method described in Study 1. For instance, the term “partner” was replaced with “spouse” to reflect the cultural context. The measures used in the study are listed below.

Spousal Undermining (SU)

We used the five-item SU scale developed by Restubog et al. (2011). A sample item is “My spouse acts in an unpleasant or angry manner toward me”. Cronbach’s alpha was .94.

Work-Family Conflict (WFC)

We used the five-item family-to-work conflict subscale (Netemeyer et al., 1996) for WFC. A sample item is “Things I want to do at work don’t get done because of the demands of my family or spouse”. Cronbach’s alpha was .94.

Analysis

Convergent validity was assessed at both item and factor levels. At the item level, convergent validity can be confirmed through significant item loadings correlating with their respective dimension (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Hinkin, 1998). At the factor level, this validity can be established with composite reliability (CR) exceeding average variance extracted (AVE), and AVE values surpassing 0.50 for each dimension (Hair et al., 2010).

Methodology experts (e.g., Brown, 2006; Kenny, 2006) suggest a correlation above .85 as indicating potential issues with discriminant validity. The AVE-SV approach developed by Fornell and Larcker (1981), widely used in organizational psychology, assesses discriminant validity by comparing AVE to shared variance (SV). Constructs are deemed to have adequate discriminant validity if the AVE exceeds their squared correlation, or SV (Cheung et al., 2023).

To evaluate discriminant validity, we included two distinct constructs. For instance, the scale spousal undermining (SU; Restubog et al., 2011) contains items that focus on how an individual’s spouse will say or do things that undermine the individual. A spouse who undermines his wife through anger, criticism and insult can be conceptualized to exhibit the opposite of CSS towards his wife. We compared this construct with the ‘CSS from spouse’ subscale of CSS-WP. Another construct work-family conflict (WFC; Netemeyer et al., 1996), which assesses work-family conflict, contrasts with the proposed CSS-WP scale, demonstrating divergent conditions in measuring private CSS.

Results

The CR values (.97, .98, .97, .98) exceeded the corresponding AVEs (.82, .88, .85, .89) across the four dimensions respectively, while each dimension’s AVE also surpassed 0.50. These results show evidence that the items significantly correlate with their respective dimension. The AVEs exceeded .50 for each dimension, supporting the convergent validity of all four dimensions of the CSS-WP scale.

The correlations between CSS from spouse−SU (−.69, p < .01) and CSS−WP−WFC (−.49, p < .01) indicated that there was adequate discriminant validity. The AVEs from CSS-WP -WFC pair (.77) and CSS from spouse-SU (.80) pair were greater than their respective SVs (24 and .49), which validates that CSS-WP is distinctive from WFC and SU.

Criterion-related Validity

We assessed criterion-related validity by including constructs that can theoretically be expected to be influenced by the newly developed measure (Hinkin, 1998). Social support positively influences both general life satisfaction and job satisfaction (King et al., 1995). Support from spouses and friends enhances happiness (Kasprzak, 2010), while detachment leads to lower positive emotions and life satisfaction (Argyle, 2013). Thus, career social support from the private domain is hypothesized to be associated with women’s job and life satisfaction by providing emotional comfort (Firth et al., 2004), practical assistance (Frone et al., 1992), guidance (Wayne et al., 2004) and a sense of belonging (Eisenberger et al., 1990). Hence, our first hypothesis is as follows.

Hypothesis 1

CSS from the private domain is positively related to women’s a) life satisfaction and b) job satisfaction.

Previous studies indicate that women’s family circumstances can affect their careers, with private patriarchy contributing to lower self-confidence and less effective decision-making (Ashraf & Jepsen, 2024). Given that family support was found to contribute to self-confidence, it is likely that support from the private domain may be positively related to women’s self-efficacy. Therefore, we hypothesize that CSS from the private domain influences self-efficacy at work, leading to career progression. Our next hypothesis is as follows.

Hypothesis 2

CSS from the private domain is positively related to women’s self-efficacy.

Measures

Unless otherwise stated, all responses were on a seven-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly agree and 7 = strongly disagree.

Life Satisfaction

Life satisfaction was assessed with a single item “How do you feel about your life as a whole right now”? (Wanberg et al., 2020). This item is strongly correlated (r = .75) with the multi-item satisfaction with the life satisfaction scale developed by Diener et al. (1985). The response scale was 1 = very dissatisfied and 10 = very satisfied.

Job Satisfaction

A three-item scale was used to assess overall job satisfaction (Seashore et al., 1983). A sample item is “All in all, I’m satisfied with my job”. Cronbach’s alpha was .86.

Self-efficacy

An eight-item general self-efficacy scale (Chen et al., 2001) was used to assess women’s self-efficacy. A sample item is “I will be able to successfully overcome many challenges”. Cronbach’s alpha was .95.

Family Support Inventory for Workers

A 44-item family support inventory for workers (FSIW) scale (King et al., 1995) was used. A sample item is “Members of my family cooperate with me to get things done around the house”. The Cronbach’s alpha was .95.

Family Social Support

A four-item family social support (FSS) subscale from the 21-item social support scale (Baruch-Feldman et al., 2002) was used. A sample item is “My family care about how I feel about my job”. Cronbach’s alpha was .95.

Work-related Spousal Support

A 12-item work-related spousal support (WRSS) scale (Ferguson et al., 2016) was used. A sample item is “My spouse understands the culture of my organization and thus can help me deal with different situations that arise at work.” Cronbach’s alpha was .90.

Analysis

The hypotheses were assessed through hierarchical multiple regression. Since demographics can influence individuals’ social support needs (Becker & Moen, 1999), we controlled for age, marriage duration, work experience and number of children following the previous career-related social support studies (e.g., Baruch-Feldman et al., 2002; Matthews et al., 2010). To demonstrate the incremental validity of CSS-WP in predicting outcomes, we also controlled for three Western scales focusing on family-related support: FSIW, FSS and WRSS.

Results

Hierarchical multiple regression results showed that CSS-WP scale significantly influenced the outcomes we hypothesized. As shown in Table 4, CSS-WP scale was positively related to life satisfaction (B = 1.27, SE = .07, p < .001), job satisfaction (B = .67, SE = .02, p < .001) and self-efficacy (B = .92, SE = .02, p < .001). After we controlled for the three traditional social support scales, CSS-WP scale was still significantly related to the predicted outcomes, indicating that CSS-WP predicts above and beyond those traditional social support scales. As shown in Table 5, CSS-WP scale was positively related to life satisfaction (B = .76, SE = .19, p < .001), job satisfaction (B = .27, SE = .06, p < .001) and self-efficacy (B = .38, SE = .06, p < .001). While some traditional scales, like the FSIW, predicted specific outcomes better than the CSS-WP, they had lower overall predictive validity and, in some cases, showed irrationally negative correlations with life satisfaction.

Table 4.

Regression results without the traditional work-related social support scales in study 3.

	Life Satisfaction	Job Satisfaction	Self-Efficacy
Constant	−.02 (.72)	1.65 (.24)***	.13 (.26)
Age	.02 (.03)	.02 (.01)	.02 (.01)
Children	−.28 (.11)	−.09 (.04)	−.08 (.04)
Marriage duration	.02 (.03)	−.03 (.01)	−.03 (.01)
Work experience	.00 (.03)	.02 (.01)	.02 (.01)
CSS-WP	1.27 (.07)***	.67 (.02)***	.92 (.02)***
R ²	.72	.85	.91
Adjusted R²	.71	.84	.90

Note. CSS-WP = Career Social Support from Women’s Private Domain; N = 200. Unstandardized regression coefficients are reported. Standard errors are reported in parentheses. *p < .05 (two-tailed); **p < .01 (two-tailed); ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Table 5.

Regression results with the traditional work-related social support scales in study 3.

	Life Satisfaction		Job Satisfaction		Self-Efficacy
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Constant	.61 (.86)	1.35 (.85)	.82 (.28)	1.09 (.27)***	−.88 (.29)	−.51 (.27)
Age	.00 (.03)	.00 (.03)	.01 (.01)	.01 (.01)	.02 (.01)	.02 (.01)
Children	−.23 (.10)	−.22 (.10)	−.08 (.03)	−.07 (.03)	−.06 (.04)	−.05 (.03)
Work experience	−.02 (.02)	−.01 (.02)	.01 (.01)	.02 (.01)	.01 (.01)	.01 (.01)
Marriage duration	.05 (.03)	.04 (.03)	−.01 (.01)	−.02 (.01)	−.02 (.01)	−.02 (.01)
FSS	1.27 (.14)***	.87 (.17)***	.40 (.05)***	.25 (.06)***	.56 (.05)***	.36 (.06)***
FSIW	−.55 (.22)	−.89 (.23)***	.48 (.07)	.35 (.07)***	.35 (.08)***	.18 (.07)
WRSS	.46 (.13)***	.27 (.14)	.01 (.04)	−.06 (.04)	.27 (.05)***	.17 (.04)***
CSS-WP		.76 (.19)***		.27 (.06)***		.38 (.06)***
R ²	.74	.76	.88	.89	.92	.94
ΔR²		.02***		.01***		.02***

Note. FSS = Family Social Support; FSIW = Family Support Inventory for Workers; WRSS = Work-related Spousal Support; CSS-WP = Career Social Support from Women’s Private Domain; N = 200. Unstandardized regression coefficients are reported. Standard errors are reported in parentheses. *p < .05 (two-tailed); **p < .01 (two-tailed); ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

We then developed two models: Model 1, which included three other social support measures and controls, and Model 2, which included the CSS-WP measure, the three other support measures and controls. Comparing these models using hierarchical multiple regression, Model 2 demonstrated that the CSS-WP explained an additional 1% or 2% of the variance in outcome variables, above and beyond the predictive effects of traditional family related support measures and control variables (Table 5). In summary, results of the three studies provide robust evidence that the 20-item CSS-WP scale is a valid and reliable measure. These 20 items were listed in Table 1 as a part of the EFA conducted in Study 2.

Discussion

The three independent studies of this research were conducted in the patriarchal context of Bangladesh among married, educated and working women and found that the 20-item CSS-WP scale was composed of four factors (CSS from parents, spouse, parents-in-law and friends). There was evidence of a higher-order factor structure supported by the four lower-order factors.

We theorized that CSS encompasses career-related emotional, instrumental and informational support from non-work sources such as parents, spouses, parents-in-law and friends. The CSS-WP scale is distinct from existing work-related social support measures in four key areas. First, while many current measures focus solely on support from work-related sources or on general family support without specifying the source (e.g., FSIW, FSS; King et al., 1995; Matthews et al., 2010), or exclusively on spousal support (e.g., WRSS; Ferguson et al., 2016), the CSS-WP includes support from a broader range of private sources. Second, most social support measures from non-work domain do not specify whether the support is related to work issues. For example, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988) features generic items such as “I can talk about my problems with my friends”, without clarifying if these problems are work-related. Furthermore, there is no career-related social support measure that includes gender-specific items to assess career support for working women. CSS-WP is a measure that explicitly assesses career-related support that women receive from their private domains.

Third, most existing social support measures focus primarily on relational or emotional aspects. For example, the FSS scale (Baruch-Feldman et al., 2002) assesses only emotional support with items like “My friends/family care about how I feel about my job.” Similarly, the MSPSS (Chou, 2000; Zimet et al., 1988) emphasizes emotional help through phrases such as “emotional help,” “share,” and “talk about.” In contrast, the CSS-WP is the first measure to comprehensively include all three forms of social support: emotional, instrumental and informational.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

Existing scales that measure general social support often overlook the specific career support needs of women in patriarchal contexts, a group that is frequently underrepresented in both social support and career research. The CSS-WP overcomes this limitation by not only assessing the types of support (e.g., emotional, instrumental and informational) that women in patriarchal environments perceive they are receiving but also identifying the sources (e.g., parents, spouse, parents-in-law and friends) of this support.

Our research extends beyond the predominantly studied Western context by introducing a novel measure derived from multiple studies involving non-Western samples. This measure incorporates items that reflect the societal characteristics of patriarchal contexts, making it particularly suitable for examining women’s careers in environments where they face societal and familial oppression or where collectivist cultural values prevail. The CSS-WP can support future research on how career support from private domains influences women’s career trajectories and outcomes in non-Western or patriarchal societies. The scale is highly adaptable as patriarchal structures remain widespread globally, with similar cultural dynamics observed across many Asian societies (Syauqila et al., 2023; Woodhams et al., 2015).

The CSS-WP scale contributes to the recent call for better designed and comprehensively validated measures of social support that are constructed around the nature, feature and source of support (Jolly et al., 2021). This scale focuses on career support. The four factors (CSS from parents, spouse, parents-in-law and friends) of the scale specifically focuses on the social support sources in women’s private domains. Each of these four factors includes items that reflect the emotional, instrumental and informational aspects of social support.

Practically, the new CSS-WP measure will assist practitioners and managers in evaluating career support from women’s private domains, especially in patriarchal contexts. The findings of this research will enable practitioners and managers to tailor work-family support policies and practices, addressing the impact of such support on reducing work-to-family conflict (Kossek et al., 2011). For instance, if lower levels of private domain support are observed, this insight could guide the design of targeted interventions or institutional measures to bridge these gaps, such as providing additional family leave, flexible work arrangements, or mentorship programs aimed at strengthening social support networks. Additionally, organizations could consider providing more access to mental health support resources, including counseling or peer support networks, which could help women manage both work and family stress.

Recognizing and understanding private domain support is crucial for creating inclusive and customized programs that support and retain female employees, particularly those burdened with heavy household responsibilities. Inclusive work-family programs will not only promote gender diversity but also enhance organizational innovation and problem-solving (Bassett-Jones, 2005; Cox & Blake, 1991).

Limitations and Future Research Directions

This research has several limitations. First, although we employed a temporal lag approach, our scale development study could not entirely eliminate the potential for common method bias. As a result, we are unable to draw definitive causal inferences about the predicted relationships. Future research could address this limitation by incorporating a longitudinal study design to better assess causality. Second, our study could use more objective work-related outcomes such as job performance in conducting criterion-related validity. Third, our scale primarily assesses career support from women’s private domain within the patriarchal context of Bangladesh. Future research could examine CSS-WP’s applicability across diverse cultural settings, making the scale more generalizable. Furthermore, exploring how intersecting identities—such as social class, religion and other personal characteristics—impact career support and women’s work experiences in patriarchal contexts would provide a more nuanced understanding of the factors influencing women’s professional lives. Fourth, our scale involves 20 items, which may be lengthy. Future researchers could develop a shorter version of this scale by reducing the scale’s length.

Conclusion

By following rigorous scale development guidelines in three separate studies, we developed a new CSS measure that is specific to women’s private domain. The findings from these three studies, involving early career graduates and professional working women, consistently showed that the CSS-WP scale has a second-order factor structure comprising four factors: support from spouse, parents, parents-in-law and friends. This new measure can be adopted to investigate the influence of CSS from private domain on women’s careers beyond Western contexts to patriarchal contexts.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Statement

ORCID iDs

Farzana Ashraf

Denise Jepsen

Data Availability Statement

The data used in this study are not publicly available due to their sensitive nature, which includes participant confidentiality and ethical considerations. However, these data are available from the corresponding author, Farzana Ashraf, upon reasonable request. Access to the data will be considered based on ensuring the protection of sensitive information and complying with ethical and legal obligations. For inquiries regarding access to the data, please contact Farzana Ashraf at farzana.ashraf@mq.edu.au.

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