Assessment of Socio-Economic Impacts of River Bank Erosion: Enhancing Resilience in the Coastal Belt of Bangladesh

Abstract

River bank erosion is one of the major natural calamities of Bangladesh. The purpose of this study is to assess the socio-economic impacts of riverbank erosion in Mehendiganj Upazila, Barishal district, using quantitative and qualitative approaches. 58% of the respondents reported that the intensity of erosion is extremely high. 80% of the cultivable land of Ulania union has disappeared in the river where this amount is near 50% for the other two unions. Nearly 45% of the respondents have migrated within the last 4 years. Among the migrated people, 94% reported that their social bondage had been broken. The findings of this research indicate that river erosion significantly affects social, economic, psychological, and ethical risks in the local community. The study will provide a comprehensive guideline to the role of local government, non-government organizations and communities to reduce the adverse impact of river erosion.

Keywords

disaster socioeconomic coastal Bangladesh resilience river bank erosion

Introduction

Bangladesh is gaining global recognition as a nation susceptible to a range of natural calamities, including riverbank erosion, floods, droughts, cyclones, and storms (MM & MN, 2017; Monirul Alam et al., 2018). The economic potential of Bangladesh is predicted to be badly hit by these repeated calamities, leading to a never-ending cycle of poverty and perhaps future migration (G.M. Monirul Alam, Bryan Jones). More than 230 rivers, many canals, and vast waterways are found in the low-lying deltaic region of Bangladesh (Ali & Khan, 2023). Riverbank erosion has a significant impact on the basins of Bangladesh’s greatest rivers, causing various detrimental effects. More frequent and severe riverbank erosion is a direct outcome of climate change, which is causing tremendous economic and human suffering across the nation (Alam, 2016). Riverbank erosion degrades landscapes and has social and environmental impacts, although it manifests differently in different nations (Sekac & Jana, 2014). Devastating riverbank erosion is a persistent cause of poverty in Bangladesh (Mollah & Ferdaush, 2015). Over time, riverbank erosion causes economic, social, and psychological distress, in addition to causing damage to residences and agricultural land, which negatively impacts people and their means of subsistence (Mamun et al., 2022). A major problem for Bangladesh in the last ten years has been the growing impact of these kinds of natural catastrophes on food production (M. M. Billah et al., 2023). Furthermore, the individuals who are impacted also experience a loss of their familial connections and social cohesion when they relocate to unfamiliar areas and establish new social networks. Riverbank erosion is a concern in around 20 out of 64 districts around the nation (Mallick & Parvin, 2019). Nearly half of Bangladesh’s homeless population is displaced by river bank erosion (Siddik et al. 2017). As the number of marginalized people continues to rise, the socio-economic condition of river bank erosion is becoming worse (Iva et al., 2017). River bank erosion is a catastrophic disaster, and during their displacement, internally displaced communities face a number of difficulties (M. S. Rahman & Gain, 2020). When the shear force is too great and the basal support collapses, fluvial erosion occurs. The groundwater runoff into a river can liquefy the basal materials of its banks (Ghosh & Sahu, 2019). In floodplains, when the seasonal rainfall extreme is high, soil erosion is more likely to occur due to sediment transit and deposition over the bank tops (Mitra et al., 2020; Tamang L, 2013). Both of these phenomena are highly active in the southern rivers of the Bengal delta which justifies the occurrence of riverbank erosion in the major and even small rivers of the Southern Bangladesh. Human settlements are always attracted by the rivers as rivers provide the better means of transportation, communication, sanitation, etc. (Fang & Jawitz, 2019). Especially in Bangladesh, the riparian population are more or less confined in fewer traditional occupation and their lifestyle is also dependent on the nature of the river. As Bangladesh faces the most devastating consequence of river erosion, and huge portion of its population directly or indirectly related to the river, every possible locality that faces river erosion should be taken under the study where their socio-economic condition will be evaluated.

Assessing the socio-economic ramifications is an essential endeavor within the domain of disaster management. This type of assessment facilitates the identification of affected sectors and the calculation of the exact financial needs for recovery and reconstruction. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan studied the Padma River to find out where people may be at risk from riverbank erosion and how it would affect their way of life. He disclosed a frightening reality, that is river erosion has resulted in the gradual transformation of a large number of affluent farmers into marginal farmers (Bhuiyan et al., 2017). Research by Afroza Mallick on the Meghna estuary revealed that the Meghna River has been impacting the surrounding areas for an extended period due to its dynamic behavior and river erosion forces the impacted populace to relocate against their will (Mallick & Mallick, 2021). Mizanur Rahman used both qualitative and quantitative data to highlight how river erosion shapes lives and livelihoods in the lower GBM delta. According to his results, over half of the people in the sample that was analyzed had been forced to relocate as a result of river erosion, and their social and economic lives have been negatively impacted as a result of river erosion (M. Rahman et al., 2022). The psychological and physiological dangers that Internally Displaced People (IDPs) confront as a result of river erosion were the subject of research by Z. R. M. Abdullah Kaiser. Although the migratory populations make an effort to adjust to the river’s eroding characteristics, he discovered that they still have challenges in meeting fundamental requirements such as providing their children with access to clean drinking water, sanitary facilities, and educational opportunities (Kaiser, 2023). Khadiza Ahtaher conducted a community-based study to determine whether or not women are resilient in the face of natural disasters such as river erosion. It was shown that women continue to be extremely reliant on the world around them in order to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Because of this, they are badly impacted by the displacement that occurs as a result of riverbank erosion (Akter et al., 2019). Md Masum Billah researched on the Padma River Basin to construct the relationship between river erosion and food production. He made the discovery that the agricultural productivity of the affected farmers is falling day by day as a result of the loss of farmlands for agricultural purposes (M. Billah et al., 2022). Abdullah Al Mamun attempted to determine the degree of livelihood resilience by examining the existence of conventional erosion control methods. In that study the socio-economic condition of the households was assessed to comment on their level of resilience. He discovered that when it comes to protect against river erosion, old ways are more often used by the studied population than contemporary ones (Mamun et al., 2022). Scholars from all over the globe are starting to pay attention to this field of study since river erosion has become a regular occurrence due to the current climate and because of the catastrophic effects of this disaster. The impact of bank erosion on the shifting social and psychological context was examined by Aznarul Islam within the setting of the Bhagirathi River in West Bengal, India. His findings led him to the conclusion that the communities that were impacted by erosion had a somewhat bigger family size, a lower literacy rate, a higher school dropout rate, and poor health (Islam & Guchhait, 2018). The lower section of the Pra River in Ghana has been subjected to the hazards of river erosion and flooding for the past two decades, which is threatening lives and properties, according to Ebenezer Asiedu, who made this observation by conducting a questionnaire survey and utilizing data from administration, interviews, and field explorers (Asiedu & Kusimi, 2021). Many researchers have tried to quantify the rate and intensity of river erosion (Kummu et al., 2008; Mahmoodzada et al., 2023; Yao et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2019). Questionnaire survey is a prominent part of data collection of the mentioned research works. Different scholars use different statistical operations to fulfill their research objectives. Due to the devastation of river erosion in Bangladesh, research on river erosion is seeing an increasing trend but a little work has been done to assess the socio-economic condition of the population of the study area (Mehendiganj Upazila) which lies in an extremely critical area in the context of the destruction of this hazard.

We included questionnaire survey, Focused Group Discussion (FGD), Key Informant Interview (KII) as data collection procedure and extensive descriptive statistical operations have been conducted on the data to infer the nature of the data. This approach seems to be a practical way to evaluate the socio-economic effects of riverbank erosion on susceptible areas over the long run. The objectives of the research are (1). To examine the diverse socio-economic challenges that emerge as a consequence of riverbank erosion. (2). To determine the degree of poverty and the rate of poverty in the areas that have been damaged by erosion. (3). To construct the relation between river erosion and social issues like early marriage, breaking of social bondage, and unemployment. (4). To explore the nature, intensity, and impact of migration due to erosion. (5). To find out the actual insights of the effectivity of the adaptive techniques. The study’s results will offer a comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic state of the research site. Its objective is to shed light on the primary vulnerabilities that have developed as a result of river erosion. Thus, policymakers will be better equipped to devise strategies to enhance the social and economic conditions of the disadvantaged populace in light of these findings. Several key questions will be prioritized in order to achieve the study objectives, such as (1). Why this specific study area has been chosen? (2). What is the intensity of river erosion in the study area and how it affects the economic sectors? (3). What are the major social issues? and is river erosion related with those issues? if related then till what extends? (4). What are the adaptive measures that are being taken by the affected communities? and are those measures effective enough to maintain a sustainable, fair socio-economic condition. All through the entire work, we’ll be making assumptions about the answers to the questions.

Selection of the Study Area

Mehendiganj Upazila lies in Barishal district. It is situated in the longitudes of 90°23′ and 90°38′ east and between 22°41′ and 23°55′ north latitude. It is enclosed by the upazilas of Hizla and Muladi to the north, Barisal Sadar and Bhola Sadar to the south, Bhola Sadar, Lakshmipur Sadar, and Raipur to the east, and Barisal Sadar and Muladi to the west (Figure 1). The upazila consists of 16 unions. The area is inhabited by 0.42 million people where the population density is 1848 per square kilometer. Hydrodynamic features that is highly interactive with the geographic location of the region make this area very vulnerable. Mehendiganj Upazila surrounded by Meghna, Tentulia, Arial khan, Lata, etc. Meghna, Tentulia, Arial khan, Lata, Azimpur, Naya Bhanga, Chilmari, and Sultani are the main rivers that have an eroding characteristic. Being a part of the Surma-Meghna River System, Meghna is formed inside Bangladesh in Kishoreganj District above the town of Bhairab Bazar by the joining of the Surma and the Kushiyara, both of which originate in the hilly regions of eastern India as the Barak River. The Meghna meets its major tributary, the Padma, in Chandpur District. In its lower reaches, this river’s path is almost perfectly straight. Meghna is a strong river with full flow of water. Tentulia is the distributary of Meghna which is also erosion-prone (Uddin et al., 2015). Being surrounded by these highly active and powerful rivers, the region faces extensive river erosion and its geography makes the region as an island which very dynamic. In total, 6 unions are the victim of river erosion. Ulania, Andharmanik and Mehendiganj Sadar all of these 3 unions are in the periphery of the island and are constantly being exploited by the river erosion. That is the reason the study selected Mehendiganj Upazila focusing on these 3 unions. At Mehendiganj Upazila, erosion victims face many unavoidable problems at different stages of displacement. Displacement marginalized them in respect of livelihood patterns and psycho-physical problems. Victims at Mehendiganj Upazila due to the riverbank erosion have gone through heavy socio-economic problems. Not enough initiatives have been taken for the settlement of displaces. Many of the uprooted people became poorer after losing cultivable lands and livelihoods. The socio-economic condition of river bank erosion is sticking as the numbers of marginalized peoples are increasing day by day. People not only are losing their houses and agricultural lands but also are being displaced often permanently and impoverished. Different establishments including roads, crops, lands, house, and ferry terminals are getting washed away every day causing heavy loss to around 1 lakh residents of the region. Keeping the above things in consideration this study aims to identify the nature of socio-economic impacts on the people Mehendiganj Upazilla caused by riverbank erosion; consequences, vulnerabilities, and adaptive techniques to build resiliency.

Figure 1.

A portion of the study area which is situated at Mehendiganj Upazila, Barishal district. Three unions such as Ulania, Andharmanik, and Mehendiganj Sadar under Mehendiganj Upazila are selected as the study area.

Materials and Methods

This study was exploratory in nature. The study has been conducted with both qualitative and quantitative approaches by collecting both primary and secondary data to answer the research questions. Primary data and field observations have been collected from the targeted participants through in-depth interviews. The study focused more on primary intervention which was through individual interviews, Focus group discussion, Key informant interviews, and Personal observation. Questionnaire method is mainly quantitative method. On the other hand, interview, field observation, Focus Group discussion (FGD), etc., are qualitative methods. The secondary data has been collected to enrich the research. Total selected households were 18,850, sum of the households contained by three unions, Andhar Manik (4504), Mehendiganj Sadar (3145), and Ulania (11,200). Data has been collected in two phases. In first phase 150 households were taken into consideration where 50 samples from each of the unions were taken. Later another 234 samples were collected maintaining equal ratio from the 3 unions. Since the stratified sampling allows for the acquisition of a complete cross-section of the population, it was employed throughout the sampling process (Cochran, 1997). The subsequent equation were implemented in order to determine the sample size.

S S = \frac{Z^{2} \times P \times (1 - P)}{C^{2}}

(1)

Level of confidence = 95%; Chi square level of significance 95%, Z = 1.96; percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal, p = .5 (male and female base); confidence interval (in decimal), C (e.g., 0.04 = ±4). According to equation (1), the required sample size is 384. However, the study took 384 households in consideration from the 3 unions where 128 households from each of the unions were taken under the questionnaire survey. Three FGD and eighteen KII were chosen purposively from the total population of the three different study areas for performing this research. Moreover, project documents and reports about the concerned organizations, newspaper (local and national) articles, magazines, journals, books, research reports, etc., were used to collect secondary data.

A comparative analysis was conducted to varied responses from all participants to understand their perception and understanding of their vulnerabilities, socio-economic impacts and adaptation techniques. During data analysis, respondent’s answers were analyzed according to direct questions and percentages were calculated. Numerous diagrams, charts, graphs, and tables are used for presenting the significant data. Microsoft office excels and SPSS software packages are used for conducting statistical test and analysis. Different required mapping are presented through Arc GIS software. A descriptive discussion is made for the explanation of qualitative data to answer the research question. Finally, results with a summary and conclusion are presented.

Result and Discussion

Socio-Demographic Status of the Respondents

Respondents’ background status includes demographical, socio-economic, and livelihood related variables. This section intends to look into some key features of background status of respondents, whereas details are presented in Table 1. There is a dominance of the participants aging from 32–40 (about 21%) in the study area followed by 51–60 aged participants (about 20%) (see Table 1). About one-fifth of participants had no formal education, while almost 40% of participants had above the primary level of schooling (Table 1). In addition, the rest of the participants (about 40%) had above the secondary level of schooling. In the social aspects, almost half of the participants lived in tin-shade in the study area followed by Kacha house type (almost 36%) (Table 1). As they are used to displace several times, they don’t have the ability to improve their housing condition. However, only 9% of houses are Pucca houses, made with brick (Table 1). Bank erosion reduces the status of livelihood, which is one of the most indirect impacts of disaster. When bank erosion takes place, people engaged in agriculture and other primary occupations, lose their jobs. Due to lack of experience and knowledge, they can neither shift into secondary occupations nor remain involved in primary occupations. Among the respondents, 41% respondents are involved in day labor activities followed by around 36% in agricultural activities, 11% small trader, 7% fishermen, and 5% service holder, respectively (Table 1). Prior to bank erosion, 61% of respondents were engaged in agriculture, while 14% were day laborers, 18% were small traders, 5% were fishers, and 2% were service holders. The majority of the respondents belong to the lower income group earning less than 10,000 taka on a monthly basis (Table 1). In addition, nearly 20% of the respondents are earning 10,001–20,000 taka per month (Table 1). Besides, the respondents with earning 20,001–30,000 taka and above 30,000 taka on a monthly basis are showed equal proportion as almost 10%, respectively. The data about the occupation and income of the participants clearly implies that the majority of the people are living in a below standard life. The influence of the river is immense in their economic life. The commonly adopted occupations like farming and fishing are directly engaged with the river.

Table 1.

Socio-Demographic Status of the Respondents (Source: Field Survey, 2022 and 2023).

Characteristic	Feature	Frequency	Percentage
Age	10–20	10	2.60
	21–30	50	13.02
	31–40	50	13.02
	41–50	64	16.66
	51–60	100	26.04
	61–70	80	20.83
	More than 70	30	7.81
Total		384	100
Educational status	Illiterate	100	26.04
	Under grade 8	150	39.06
	S.S.C.	100	26.04
	H.S.C.	24	6.25
	Higher level education	10	2.60
Total		384	100
Household type	Pucca	50	13.02
	Tin shade	250	65.10
	Kacha	84	21.87
Total		384	100
Occupation	Agriculture	130	33.85
	Day labor	80	20.83
	Small trader	74	19.27
	Fisherman	50	13.02
	Service holder	50	13.02
Total		384	100
Income (monthly)	Less than 10000	150	39.06
	10,001–20,000	70	18.22
	20,001–30,000	84	21.87
	30,001–40,000	50	13.02
	More than 40000	30	7.81
Total		384	100

Intensity of Erosion

According to the questionnaire study, around 58% of respondents reported that the intensity of erosion in their region to be extremely high, with 30% finding it high, 11% medium, and 1% low intensity (Figure 2). Riverbank erosion is one of the most unpredictable and critical types of disaster that takes into account the quantity of rainfall, soil structure, river morphology, topography of river and adjacent areas, and floods. The river erosion intensity of these areas is rapidly getting extreme due to the overflow of river water. Heavy rainfall is another reason of erosion. The monsoon period in Bangladesh starts in late June and ends in late August. Sometimes, this period extends up to September. With the decreasing trend of river water after the end of monsoon period, the velocity of current increases that washes out the riverbank easily. During that time, they face the bank erosion most. The frequency of this bank erosion is classified into four types as—very high, high, medium, and low. Respondents observed erosion become very high during July–August and, become high during September–October and medium in January–March.

Figure 2.

Intensity of erosion in the study area. Majority of the people believed that the intensity of erosion in their area is very high (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Impacts on Economic Sectors due to Erosion

The economy is essential for the development of any district or upazila. Mehendiganj upazila is being economically vulnerable due to river erosion. Among the three unions, Ulania union has been affected severely in all the determinants followed by Sadar and Andharmanik unions (Figure 3). Almost 80% of the agricultural land of Ulania union has been destroyed due to river bank erosion. On the other two unions, this rate is almost 60% and 40%, respectively (Figure 3). Similarly, most of the respondents in Ulania union lost their household land (about 55%) due to riverbank erosion while in other regions we observed less impact (Figure 3). Additionally, nearly 40% of respondents reported that erosional consequences caused them to lose their domestic animals, with Sadar (12%) and Andharmanik (10%) coming in second and third, respectively. A minor percentage of respondents reported an increase in daily goods price and adverse health issues in the studied areas. On the other side, nearly half the Ulania respondents faced infrastructural damages due to erosion, whereas Mehendiganj Sadar union observed 36% and Andharmanik 32%, respectively (Figure 3). Being more fertile, lands on the riverside regions always attract farmers (Das & Samanta, 2023) which make them to be settled alongside the rivers. That is the main reason for which the events of river erosion damage the farmers more. Talking about the Ulania Union, it is the most populated union and thus damage is also widespread. Rural Bangladesh is known for its agriculture-based economy from ancient time. This region is also famous for its ample and fine rice production. Many small traders of agricultural products have been operating in the area for decades but now with the aggression of erosion many of them have shifted their profession. It’s reasonable to say that this particular type of disaster has shook up the region’s economy as a whole, and the destruction hasn’t stopped yet; it’s still going on.

Figure 3.

Ulania area observed more severely damaged in all the economic sectors due to erosion than Mehendiganj Sadar and Andharmanik, respectively (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Loss of Agricultural Land

Agricultural land is a vital resource for the people living in Bangladesh especially those who live in rural areas. Almost 87 % of the total population depends agriculture in our country (Sachdev, 2021). In the context of the loss of agricultural land, it is classified into 5 categories based on the loss of agricultural lands (Table 2). Empirical data shows that about 34% of people in Mehendiganj Sadar lost about 0.01–1.00 acres of land due to river erosion followed by Andharmanik (30%) and Ulania (25%), respectively (Table 2). In contrast, Andharmanik inhabitants faced the loss of about 28% of lands as the category of 1.01–2.00 acres, while the loss in Ulania was observed 26% and Sadar 24%, respectively (Table 2). Around the same time, 18% of individuals in Ulania and Andharmanik were noted to have lost land that was around 2.01–3.00 acres, followed by Sadar (17%) (Table 2). On the other hand, 13% people of Sadar and Andharmanik were found to loss lands about 3.01–4.00 acres followed by Ulania (12%) (Table 2). Likewise, Andharmanik residents face higher land loss as a category of more than 4 acres of land size than Ulania (Table 2). In the study areas, most of the respondents are heavily dependent on agricultural land in terms of both primary and secondary occupation. Many farmers have become poor overnight due to this disaster. As the respondents of the studied area are highly dependent on agricultural activities, the loss of agricultural land may leave vast impacts on their social and economic conditions (Bhuiyan et al., 2017). A day laborer named Saifur Islam, who is 28 years old, stated, “My father was a farmer, few years ago all of our agricultural land got eroded by the river. We became penniless overnight. I had to give up my study. Now, I along with my younger brother whose study has also stopped, are working as day labor.” This is the common picture of the study area people who used to be farmers are now either switching their profession or migrating to big cities for the hope of better life. Modern method of farming can compensate the loss to some extent. Application of modern technology can provide more crops in less land which can help the farmers to sustain their profession with the left-over lands. Local administration should encourage and train people so that they can adopt modern cultivation methods. Hybrid and more productive seeds should be distributed by the government among the farmers. Finally, subsidy on agriculture can encourage the farmers to cling to farming.

Table 2.

Loss of Agricultural Land (Source: Field Survey, 2022 and 2023).

Land size (acres)	Ulania (%)	Mehendigang Sadar (%)	Andhar Manik (%)
0.01–1.00	25	34	30
1.01–2.00	26	24	28
2.01–3.00	18	17	18
3.01–4.00	12	13	13
>4.00	14	13	15

Loss of Homestead Land

Table 3 delves into the perception of the people who lost their homestead land due to river bank erosion. Observed data displays that about 34% of people in Mehendiganj Sadar lost about 0.01–0.50 acres of lands due to river bank erosion followed by Andharmanik (27%) and Ulania (22%), respectively (Table 3). On the other side, Land loss in the 0.51–1.00-acre category was reported by 45% of respondents from Ulania, 42% from Andharmanik, and 40% from Sadar (Table 3). Additionally, 22% people of Sadar area observed to loss lands about 1.01–1.50 acres followed by Andharmanik (20%) and Ulania (18%), respectively (Table 3). To add to it, people of the Sadar Union suffer more from lost homestead land as categories of 1.51–2.00 and more than 2 acres than other unions (Table 3).

Table 3.

Loss of Homestead Land. (Source: Field Survey, 2022 and 2023).

Land size (acres)	Ulania (%)	Mehendigang Sadar (%)	Andhar Manik (%)
0.01–0.50	22	34	27
0.51–1.00	45	40	42
1.00–1.50	18	22	20
1.51–2.00	7	8	7
>2.00	3	4	3

The severe impact of bank erosion is the loss of homestead which makes the population more vulnerable to living a miserable life (Uddin & Basak, 2012). When erosion strikes, people have no option left behind them except to bear the losses. They usually do not change their homestead before the erosion swallows the place. The main reason behind such behavior is that they have little earnings that never allow them to replace their homesteads before they totally collapse. In the perception of the people, it is found that Bank erosion of the study area made the people fully shelter less. Rehabilitation programs can be a remedy for the victims. People should be encouraged to settle away from the riverbanks. Modern surveying techniques, particularly remote sensing methods, can be utilized to pinpoint areas prone to vulnerability, thereby facilitating the relocation of individuals to safer zones.

Loss of Infrastructure

River bank erosion eroded not only agricultural land and homestead land but also many educational institutions, roads, bridges, culverts, and religious institutions. About 20% houses of in Ulania is damaged due to river bank erosion followed by Mehendiganj Sadar and Andharmanik, respectively. Similarly, 15% roads of Ulania is damaged due to erosion where Mehendiganj Sadar (11%) and Andharmanik (9%). A similar picture found in terms of culverts, madrasas and educational institutes, respectively. The people and resources are under the threat of riverbank erosion in the study area. Many educational institutions eroded due to this disaster and some infrastructures are vulnerable to erosion. Erosion has limited the educational and transportation facilities in the study area. Education plays a vital role in changing the people’s livelihood situation. Moreover, the area lacks proper school premises and some of the schools had to be shifted due to erosion. Thus, majority of the people have dropped out of their schooling due to a decrease in the rate of interest for going to schools. Figure 4 reveals that the Ulania union is worst sufferer in the context of infrastructure damages than the other two upazilas due to river bank erosion. Jamir Uddin a 50 years old farmer told, “My granddaughter has completed her primary education in a nearby school but our nearest high school has been abandoned due to potential risk of collapse due to erosion. Other schools are far away from our present address. So, we are losing our interest to continue the further schooling of my granddaughter.” Many of the respondents are in the same situation as Jamir Uddin. In order to mitigate the effects of inadequate public institutions and facilities on the socio-economic well-being of the residents, it is imperative that governing bodies promptly undertake measures to restore and maintain these critical infrastructures, which appear to be deficient in each of these unions. According to participants many roads, mosques, and even schools have been vanished by erosion but a few of them has been rebuilt.

Figure 4.

Ulania area found more severely damaged in the infrastructures due to erosion than Mehendiganj Sadar and Andharmanik, respectively (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Impacts on Livelihood Conditions

The erosion of the rivers has adverse effects on the occupation of the people of eroded areas and victims lose agricultural lands. Thus, for better earning people run to urban areas. In Bangladesh, the incidence of offense employment is more pronounced in rural areas. Rural unemployment is again of two types-Seasonal unemployment and disguised unemployment. Agriculture which is a principal occupation in the rural areas of the countries is seasonal in nature. Therefore, the rural population of the country doesn’t hold a permanent earning source throughout the year. In the absence of multiple cropping systems and subsidiary occupation in rural areas a huge number of rural populations have to sit idle 5th to 7th months in a year. Bangladeshi agriculture is also suffering from disguised or perennial unemployment due to excessive pressure on agriculture and allied activities. In the eroded areas, people felt heavy stress in agriculture due to erosion. Joynal Hossain (35), a fisherman, during an interview told, “My ancestors used to be farmers but river erosion has washed away all of our cultivable lands and left me with no other choice to switch my occupation. The occupation of fishing is not as safe as farming and there is no security of steady income also. Currently I am struggling to feed my family.”

Impacts on Social Sectors due to Erosion

Riverbank erosion has terrible socio-economic impacts on people in our country. Very often it creates adverse effects on people damaging standing crops and infrastructure, destroying settlements and disrupting communications. The degree of economic loss and suffering of people has increased in recent years and the total monetary loss is estimated to be approximately USD 500 million per year. The damage during the displacement and resettlement due to river erosion is unbound. Besides the loss of land, they also lose other things, and being homeless, they become assetless too. Erosion victims lose their agricultural and homestead lands on the one hand and on the other hand they become rootless, ousted from their community, disintegrated from their family ties and social bondage. The effect is enormous and the loss is quite impossible to regain. Empirical study reveals that about the four-fifth portion of the respondents claimed the broken of their social bondage due to erosion followed by migration, early marriage, injustices, and others (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

The study discloses that majority portion of the respondents were claimed on the broken of their social bondage due to erosion followed by migration, early marriage, injustices, and others (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Broken Social Bondage

Due to river bank erosion, many joint families have been broken. As due to erosion people become shelter less so they resettle in different places. Some resettle in other villages, while some in other unions and some in nearby towns. So, there is not enough interaction with each other as before. Statistics shows that about 94% of respondents said in the affirmative that erosion has broken their social bondage (Figure 6). When they lived together, they had strength. They helped each other in any kind of problem. But when they separated, they are no longer able to contact each other. This distance had broken their bondage. Only 6% of respondents said that their social bond with their relatives is remaining same as before (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Statistics shows that majority respondents said in affirmative that erosion has broken their social bondage (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Migration

Bangladesh is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. River bank erosion is one of the natural disasters that cause migration of inhabitants who previously lived near river banks (Kabir & Kamruzzaman, 2022). Every year thousands of people relocate their houses due to erosion. According to the survey, it is found that about 45% of respondents shifted their homes about 1–4 years ago which is the recent record of displacement due to erosion. Talking about the previous records of migration, about 9–12 years ago (26%), 5–8 years ago (19%), and more than 13 years ago (10%), respectively (Figure 7). Many of those erosion-distressed people lose not only their homes, means of livelihood and assets but also their previous identity, and they, therefore, often try hard to get a recognition of an identity. Riverbank erosion is a destructive hazard in Bangladesh that permanently displaces and impoverishes people. Population displacement due to erosion is endemic throughout Bangladesh. It has been estimated that about one million people are directly affected every year by riverbank erosion. It is very hard to define population displacement like the wide concept of population. The word migration may be defined as the dislocation of population due to natural (flood, cyclone, drought, riverbank sliding, etc.) or manmade (war, riot, fire, etc.) disasters. Attention needs to be directed to the displaced people, particularly their perspective aspects to river bank into account of continued suffering. Migration is the immediate impact of riverbank erosion. The displaced population usually move to nearby areas but migrations to distant places are not uncommon. In erosion-prone areas, most families have witnessed a displacement in their lifetime. Mst Morsheda Akhter, 55 years old illiterate widow said, “When my husband was alive, we used to live riverside, nearly 3 miles away from our present resident. He was a wealthy farmer and our family was integrated. We had many livestock. But river erosion has grabbed nearly all of our assets. My elder son has bought this small strip of land and shifted our house in this place. I have 3 sons and all have become separated during the migration.” This involuntary movement can go up to 8 times or even more. On the basis of the number of migrations, the respondents were classified into 8 categories. In the study area, some respondents never shifted their house. Figure 8 delves into that majority of the respondents shifted their places three times (32%) followed by migrated two times (19%), and one times (14%), respectively. A minor amount of respondents migrated five times (12%) followed by four times (10%). It is clear from the study that in the study area large number of respondents represent a category where they have shifted their residents about three times throughout their lifetime.

Figure 7.

Status of migration due to erosion. About half of the respondents shifted their home about 1–4 years ago (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Figure 8.

It is clear from the study that in the study area the large number of respondents shifted their house three times (Source: Field survey, 2022 & 2023).

Early Marriage

Early marriage is a common issue in our country. Almost 82% respondents of the study area reported that early marriage is increasing due to river bank erosion, while about 18% respondents opined the opposite (Figure 9) where they stated that river erosion is not responsible for early marriage. Though government has taken some steps against it but still its rate is increasing. Behind its increasing rate there are also some causes such as poverty is one of them. In the study area, the rate of early marriage is increasing day by day. River erosion has an indirect impact on it. Due to river erosion people are losing their assets and becoming poorer. So, they lack the ability and interest to send their girls to school. They think it’s a burden to them and they try to get their daughters, sisters to be married as soon as possible. In an FGD, Roshid Hawladar (40) a tea stall owner and a former farmer said, “We have to fight against poverty to even feed our children in this case marriages are seemed to be the best solution to give a steady and secured life to our daughters. If we would have a poverty free life, situation would be different.” He was supported by other participants. They explained that only poverty is not the reason. Some people in their areas have ability to continue their girls schooling but they are not interested in continuing it. Proper willingness and awareness among the people can slacken the rising trend of early marriage. NGOs have to play a major role to raise awareness among the masses. It is not possible to fully disappear early marriage if the socio-economic condition of the inhabitants are raised. So, positive adaptation with river erosion events can make the people to stay away from not only this particular social problem but also other challenges.

Figure 9.

Majority of the respondents said in affirmative that early marriage is increasing due to riverbank erosion (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

People’s Perception About the Causes of Erosion

Figure 10 intends to look into people’s perception about the causes of erosion. About 39% respondents of the study area stated that river erosion occurs according to Gods will, thus they think it as injustice to them by God. The people, who attributed the cause to the will of the Almighty, were either old or middle-aged. Most of them are illiterate and do not know the causes. They also assured that human activity is never responsible for this disaster. On the other side, about 30% of respondents stated that some anthropogenic causes are responsible for this severe disaster (Figure 10). They observed and showed many reasons. One group stated that cutting soil and sand dredging machine is one of the reasons for this erosion. Another group of people and researchers believed that the large waves of launch and stemmer accelerate the erosion rate (S. A. Rahman et al., 2022). During an FGD almost all the participants indicated that some modern and speedy sailing barges locally named as “Green line waterways” are creating larger waves which can be a cause that is intensifying the erosion. Additionally, around 22% of respondents believed that both natural and anthropogenic causes are responsible for erosion (Figure 10). Only 9% of respondents believed that it may be occurred due to excessive rainfall (Figure 10). However, some findings surely tell us the gender gap still remains predominant in our social system. Women in large numbers, could not even imagine, how the actions of human beings can cause erosion. All these opinions of the respondents reflect the resilience level of the victims. It is clear that majority of the population lack proper knowledge about the disaster let alone the preparation to fight against it. This situation has not been created in a day, decades of deprivation from education has turned this population into “Unaware Victims” and if it continues to go on, the present and upcoming generation won’t be able to cope with the advancing world.

Figure 10.

People’s perception about the causes of erosion (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Rate of Vulnerability

Many sectors are vulnerable due to river erosion. This section intends to delve into the rate of economic and social vulnerability due to erosion.

Economical Vulnerability Rating

Figure 11 shows that the majority of respondents believed that all of the sectors are severely vulnerable due to erosion. To begin with, about 95% of respondents believed that the agricultural sector is more severely vulnerable than other sectors, with infrastructure and household sectors following closely behind. Then, nearly 80% of respondents have a belief that domestic animals are destroyed highly. As agricultural activities are the main pillar of economy of the region, adverse impacts on agriculture are gradually paralyzing the economic growth. It is not only the farmers who are getting damaged but also there are also other occupations that are affiliated with agricultural activities. There are many people who are engaged in agricultural laboring, crop processing, and small businesses of agricultural products. So along with farmers other communities are facing disastrous impacts of river erosion in their income. Anser Ullah (55) a seasonal businessman of agricultural product expressed, “The condition of business in not profitable any more, number of large farmers have decreased to a great extend and the supply of crops has reached to bottom. I am planning to shift to Barishal (Divisional town) to help my elder brother in his hardware shop.”

Figure 11.

Rate of vulnerability in terms of economic sectors (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Social Vulnerability Rating

The adverse social consequences have ensued due to the erosion of riverbanks. Higher portion of the respondents of the Ulania area opined that social bondage and family relations have been broken down due to erosion. Many people are compelled to change their occupations as a consequence of erosion. It has already been discussed that many people have migrated to urban areas for shelter, employment, and food. A mentionable number of respondents said that social services and social networks have been broken down as a result of erosion. The people, who are living in river bars, are deprived of medical services in emergency situation. It is very difficult for them to arrange transport like boats or another vehicle during an emergency situation. The mainland people called the bar land people “choura.” They express its meaning as the inferior status of the char people. Some of the respondents informed that their peaceful life had been shattered completely. River bank erosion highly impacted the social sector. Statistics suggest majority of the people (90%) believed that migration occurred due to river bank erosion and almost 72% of early marriage and injustice are the indirect result of the river erosion (Figure 12). Besides, around 56% of people believed social bondage mainly hampered by this phenomenon (Figure 12).

Figure 12.

Rate of vulnerability in terms of social sectors (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Adaptive Techniques

After a severe disaster, it is quite likely that affected people expect some social and economic support from the government and other NGOs. The survey result suggests that the affected people do not get enough help from the government and the other NGOs.

Perception of the Respondents regarding Relief Situation

The survey report states that, the majority of the people believe that the effectiveness of the relief operations is unsatisfactory due. Among the respondents only 6% respondents believe that it is less sufficient, followed by 2% of respondents who believe that the relief is sufficient enough (Figure 13). Talking about the organizational and institutional relief-support, the victims presume that the relief materials provided by these institutions are not sufficient for them. The villagers stated that after severe river bank erosion, they do not receive economic assistance and logistic support from their kin and community since most families become affected and all remain in the same condition. Institutional supports normally arrive quite late and they do not respond instantly to help the people. A few NGOs and government institutions, however, come up with some help, but these do not seem to be sufficient to meet their needs. “This region lies in a relatively remote area and no transportation facility is also poor, that is a major reason why sometimes the relief operations get delayed,” said a Union Parishad officer of Ulania Union. But the normal respondents have a separate view. According to most of them, the relief operations lack the transparency of fair distribution. Thus, proper supervision and adjustment in relief distribution should be ensured to heal the loss of the victims.

Figure 13.

The perception of the respondent’s regarding relief situation (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Emergency Relief during the Events

Throughout the survey process, according to the victims past experience, It has been found that a few people received emergency relief during riverbank erosion. It is however, true when the situation got highly publicized after erosion then the government came forward to help the victims and needy persons of the affected villages. Among them, a huge number of severely affected people did not get any type of assistance. About 62% of respondents reported that they did not get any relief while only 38% of respondents received some assistance but were not sufficient. Figure 14 intends to look into the perception of people (38%) during emergency relief campaigns. About 58% respondents got khichuri during the emergency time from government and NGOs followed by received rice (30%), received tin (7%), and received 3000 taka (5%), respectively.

Figure 14.

Emergency relief during riverbank erosion (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Initiatives Taken to Reduce the Impacts

Riverbank erosion is a disastrous calamity; especially for Bangladesh where there are about 700 rivers, and many areas on the bank line are erosion-prone. Every year somewhere, some people are experiencing erosion and going through miserable vulnerabilities. This suffering continues generation after generation because of the lack of proper measures to control erosion. This situation also prevails in Mehendiganj Upazila.

To prevent bank erosion, there are numerous kinds of adaptation techniques are considered. Some indigenous techniques are taken by the local people of the study area.

Indigenous Techniques by Local People

• From the statistical data, it is found that most of the local people are formulating their adaptation strategies based on the available local materials as well as local and indigenous knowledge.

• From Figure 15 shows various steps taken by the erosion victims. About 37% of people have tried to prevent this disaster by bamboo piling followed by (25%) tree and wood piling, (19.6%) sand bag, and (17.9%) both bamboo and tree and wood piling.

Figure 15.

Indigenous techniques are adopted by local people (Source: Field survey 2022 & 2023).

Some initiatives are also taken by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) but these have not been effective enough. Some blocks, soil, and sandbags are brought to the affected areas but still those are not used in the river bank. Thus, these initiatives are still not useful for the villagers. Villagers believe that policymakers are an important part of development. Without honest, committed and sincere political leaders and good governance strategies proper prevention and recovery cannot be ensured.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Results and inferences of numerous interviews and analyses from the study area, Mehendiganj Upazila, demonstrate that the investigated region is exceedingly vulnerable due to river erosion. Among the 3 investigated union all of the union is affected by river erosion but Ulania is the worst sufferer. The frequency and degree of erosion is high to very high in this region. It is shockingly explored that nearly all the aspect of the social life of the riparian are negatively affected by the river erosion. The statistical findings are showcasing that the erosion is intensifying day by day. The information from different interviews provides a more practical picture of the distress of river erosion where the victims shared their touching stories of how the erosion has snatched their wealth and happiness. Some new social challenges have emerged and some existing problems are intensifying due to erosion. Problems like insecurity in steady income and good future of children have been discovered as the latest edition in the challenge list of the victims. People are engaged in very specific and limited sources of income like farming, fishing, and laboring. The highest portion of them is engaged in agriculture and shockingly, many wealthy farmers have been turned into medium or marginal within the timespan of last few decades. Increasing trend of population and losing of agricultural land have given rise to unemployment. As a consequence, poverty is making its position amongst the riparian community reflecting the fact that only 1 person in 10 respondents has income more than 30,000 taka per month. Some pre-existing problems like deficiency in health and educational facilities are getting worse day by day. It has been observed that people are supporting early marriage. Many homesteads and public infrastructures get vanished with every erosion event which leaves the victims with no other choices than to migrate. Rate of displacement is also considerably high in the studied area and the adverse psychological impact of the displacement catalyzes the above discussed problems. The social bondage among the victim community is at a stake. Many victims were seen to be living in barren lands far away from the locality. Thus, the social and economic life of the victims are in critical condition and they are living in the midst of uncertainty about their future. It is alarming that even yet the resilience level among the victim community about the origin, risk identification, pre preparation, and post recovery of the disaster is low. In the context of relief and rehabilitation programs, victims are seemed to be unsatisfied with the respective authority. Insufficiency in allotment, poor management and improper distribution of the allotted relief may be the main reasons that have made the victims unsatisfied. Though modern methods of river training were seen in some places but they are not properly applied and maintained. Local inhabitants have strong belief that the preventive methods applied by authority would be more effective if the opinions of the local community would be taken into concentration before the implication of such large projects. However, most of the people have been fighting against the river erosion with their indigenous techniques where they are using local available materials. Riverbank erosion is a threatening problem for the people of Bangladesh and for the economy of the country as well. It also breaks the environmental and ecological equilibrium. The loss of erosion is irreparable. As our country is densely packed with people and maximum of them are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture proper measures for erosion control are badly needed. The following recommendations are made on the basis of discussion, analysis of this study along with literature study and victim’s opinion:

• Appropriate measures should be implemented to provide relief and rehabilitation for the displaced. One potential approach to resettling erosion-induced displacements is to implement a “Development Program.” Land that has been acquired ought to be returned to its rightful proprietors. A government-established “emergency fund” for erosion-related expenses is another possibility. The rights and security of the victims should be ensured.

• Extensive survey along the river channel, especially remote sensing techniques should be applied to identify the risky zones of river erosion.

• A code of conduct should be formed for the speedy boats and ships considering the wave impact

• Sand dredging in riverbed should be strongly supervised by the authority.

• The region should be divided into different safe zones such as zone for housing, zone for afforestation, and zone for farming based on the intensity of river erosion in different regions.

• Afforestation along the banks should be introduced with proper planning.

• Local and affected people should be consulted before taking any type of erosion control measures.

• Many erosion-induced displaces are compelled to change their profession. They suffer from income erosion. At this time, they should be given micro-credit.

• Proper planning for erosion protection is badly required. Political motivation and interest-driven plans for erosion control must be avoided.

• Extensive survey should be conducted and more durable and sustainable embankment should be built. Especially people of the Ulania union seemed to need embankments badly.

• Authority should issue more funds for the development of infrastructures and rehabilitations.

• NGOs along with government should come forward to launch different training programs to make the victims more adapted. Especially trainings on agricultural ground are more important to introduce farmers with modern methods of agriculture. Government should issue more subsidy on agricultural production.

• No development plan that hampers the natural flow of the river should be applied or authorized. Timely and effective erosion control measures should be an important consideration while making a plan.

• More and more research should be conducted in this area to find out the socio-economic impacts of river erosion and adaptation strategies to reduce the negative impact of this phenomenon.

• Infrastructures that have been damaged or destroyed should be relocated and rebuilt. Existing infrastructures that are in risky condition should be maintained in such ways so that they can be sustainable.

Many of the respondents were found to be ignorant about the effects, causes, and impacts of river erosion which appeared as a major problem during data collection. All the inhabitants were not co-operative to share the information about their assets, income, and family. The mode of transportation to the research site is unfavorable also. Despite these limitations the study has revealed valuable insights about the social and economic lifestyle of the erosion-prone community which will help the authority to adopt more specific organizational planning approaches and will provide a better view about the required services of the region. The study’s findings will offer helpful guidance for future research on river erosion in the region.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to the Editor-in-Chief Professor Gavin Hilson and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions, which improved the quality of the manuscript.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Md. Abdur Rahim

Dhiman Kumer Roy

Irteja Hasan

Md. Abdullah Salman

Author Biographies

Md. Abdur Rahim is an Associate Professor in the Department of Disaster Resilience and Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Science and Disaster Management of Patuakhali Science and Technology University (PSTU), Bangladesh. Before joining PSTU, he served as a Junior Hydrogeologist at the Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), Dhaka-1230, Bangladesh. MAR teaches and researches Societal Resiliency to Disasters, Geotechnical Engineering, Geo-hazards, and Hydro-hazards. His research interests include River Flood Mitigation and AI approaches in risk monitoring, mitigation, and management-related sciences. He has published more than 17 articles in national and international journals.

Nusrat Akter is an Assistant Teacher of Primary School, Barguna Sadar, Bangladesh. She completed her B.Sc (Hon’s) and Masters degree from the Department of Disaster Resilience and Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Science and Disaster Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Patuakhali, Bangladesh.

Dhiman Kumer Roy is an Associate professor in the Department of Geology and Mining. His Ph. D thesis was from Shimane University, Japan His research interests are focused on understanding changes in the mineralogical and geochemical composition of the sediments under different environment and climate states using data from sediment archives. Dr. Dhiman is currently working on the petrological and geochemical composition of ancient and modern sediments in the Bengal basin, to elucidate the role of influencing factors that control the composition of sediments in relation to source rock compositions, weathering, climate, environment of deposition, tectonic, and sediment routing systems from source to sink. Post-depositional effects such as diagenesis are also evaluated. “Research focuses on inorganic geochemical composition of sediments to infer past climatic and environmental changes in relation to global cooling and global warming, and synthesize key information to understand the impact of Icehouse to Greenhouse transition on the exosphere. He has developed an innovative element-element ratio proxy to characterize the transition of Icehouse to Greenhouse state (large scale climate change). In addition, I seek to document the role of Himalayan uplift, erosion and depositional processes, evolution of the Asian monsoon, basin wide correlation using sedimentary petrology and inorganic geochemical composition. Recently, he is also working on the disaster and water related issue in the coastal region of Bangladesh to alleviate the society from disaster and contaminated water for safe drinking water option.

Irteja Hasan is a lecturer in Coastal Studies and Disaster Management at the University of Barishal, Bangladesh. He is an Environment and GIS Expert whose research and writing focuses on GIS, Remote Sensing, AHP, Flood, Sustainable Development, Cyclones, Climate Change and Environmental Impact Assessment. Contacts E-mail: irteja07@gmail.com.

Md. Abdullah Salman is an assistant professor at the Department of Geology and Mining at the University of Barishal, Bangladesh. He obtained his M.S. from the Department of Geology of Dhaka University before joining Barishal University as a faculty member. His research interests include Climate, disaster, geochemistry, climate change and Remote sensing and GIS studies in geosciences. He has published articles on geological research in several peer-reviewed national and international journals.

Sukhen Goswami is an assistant professor at the Department of Geology and Mining at the University of Barishal, Bangladesh. He obtained his M.S. from the Department of Geology of Dhaka University before joining Barishal University as a faculty member. His research interests include hydrogeology, geochemistry, climate change and disaster management, and Remote sensing and GIS studies in geosciences. He has published articles on geological research in several peer-reviewed national and international journals.

Dr Tareq Mahmud Abir was born in Dhaka (Bangladesh) in 26 th October 1987. He received his Ph.D in Sociology in 2019 from CCNU (Central China Normal University) Wuhan, China. In 2012 he has joined University of Barishal as a Lecturer and promoted as Assistant Professor in March 2016. Now he is serving as Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology, University of Barishal. He was also a guest lecturer in Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science & Technology University (BSMRSTU). His research is situated in the area of Climate Change, Vulnerability Assessment, Disaster Risk Analysis, Coastal Adaptation, Disaster and Community Resilience and Societal Dimension of Health and Disaster. Dr. Abir teaches several courses on Environmental Sociology, Research Methodology, Disaster Management and Vulnerability Studies, Gender Society and Development and Sociology of Sustainable Development. He has been involved in many collaborative national and international research projects.

Dr Raman Kumar Biswas is currently working as a Professor at the Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Patuakhali, Bangladesh. His Ph. D thesis was from Tohoku University, Japan. Titled “Terrestrial Ecosystem Collapse and Soil Erosion before the End-Permian Marine Extinction: Organic Geochemical Evidence from Marine and Non-Marine Records” His research interest is Biogeochemistry, Mass Extinction and Paleo-climate, and Ground Water Quality. He published three books and research articles on mass extinction and disaster management.

Md Mahmudul Hasan Rakib is currently pursuing a master's degree at the University of Barishal in the Department of Geology and Mining. He has research interests in the field of Climatic Study and Sedimentology. One of his mentionable research works is titled ‘An Empirical Study on Disaster Vulnerability and Resilience in Char Hizla, Bangladesh' (2023). He has a strong attraction to research-based activities and he is actively involved in different research projects.

References

Akter

Dey

Hasan

(2019). Riverbank erosion and its impact on rural women: Case study of Ulania village in Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 25(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2019.1577343

Alam

G. M. M.

(2016). An assessment of the livelihood vulnerability of the riverbank erosion hazard and its impact on food security for rural households in Bangladesh. In PhD Thesis (pp. 1–216). University of Southern Queensland. https://eprints.usq.edu.au/34160/1/Alam_2016_whole.pdf

Ali

Khan

F. U.

(2023). Socio-economic impacts of Teesta Riverbank erosion: Evidence from Lalmonirhat District, Bangladesh. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies, 3(4), 471–476. https://www.multiresearchjournal.com/admin/uploads/archives/archive-1690207407.pdf

Asiedu

Kusimi

J. M.

(2021). Impacts of flooding and riverbank erosion on the environment and socio-economic activities in the Lower Pra River Basin. Ghana Social Science Journal, 18(1), 24–24. https://journals.ug.edu.gh/index.php/gssj/article/view/1636

Bhuiyan

M. A. H.

Islam

S. M. D. U.

Azam

(2017). Exploring impacts and livelihood vulnerability of riverbank erosion hazard among rural household along the river Padma of Bangladesh. Environmental Systems Research, 6(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0102-9

Billah

Majumdar

Mohammad

Rahman

Hossain

(2022). Impact of riverbank erosion on rural food security in Bangladesh. preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202207.0186.v1

Billah

M. M.

Majumdar

Rahman

S. M. A.

Alam

M. S.

Hossain

M. J.

Talukder

Islam

M. M.

Khanam

(2023). Riverbank erosion and rural food security in Bangladesh. World, 4(3), 528–544. https://doi.org/10.3390/world4030033

Cochran

W. G.

(1997). Sampling Techniques (3rd Edition). John Wiley & Sons.

Das

Samanta

(2023). Impact of floods and river-bank erosion on the riverine people in Manikchak Block of Malda District, West Bengal. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25(11), 13595–13617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02648-1

10.

Fang

Jawitz

J. W.

(2019). The evolution of human population distance to water in the USA from 1790 to 2010. Nature Communications, 10(1), 430. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08366-z

11.

Ghosh

Sahu

A. S.

(2019). Bank line migration and its impact on land use and land cover change: A case study in Jangipur Subdivision of Murshidabad District, West Bengal. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 47(12), 1969–1988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-019-01043-0

12.

Islam

Guchhait

S. K.

(2018). Analysis of social and psychological terrain of Bank Erosion victims: A study along the Bhagirathi River, West Bengal, India. Chinese Geographical Science, 28(6), 1009–1026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-018-0937-7

13.

Iva

T. T.

Hazra

Saha

Hossain

(2017). River bank erosion and its impact on population displacement in Bauphal upazila under Patuakhali district, Bangladesh. Journal of Science, Technology and Environment Informatics, 05(02), 371–381. https://doi.org/10.18801/jstei.050217.39

14.

Kabir

M. E

Kamruzzaman

(2022). Exploring the Drivers of Vulnerability Among Disadvantaged Internal Migrants in Riverbank Erosion Prone Areas in North-West Bangladesh. Journal of South Asian Development, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/09731741221078741

15.

Kaiser

Z. R. M. A.

(2023). Analysis of the livelihood and health of internally displaced persons due to riverbank erosion in Bangladesh. Journal of Migration and Health, 7(January), Article 100157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2023.100157

16.

Kummu

X. X.

Rasphone

Sarkkula

Koponen

(2008). Riverbank changes along the Mekong River: Remote sensing detection in the Vientiane – Nong Khai area. Quaternary International, 186(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2007.10.015

17.

Mahmoodzada

A. B.

Varade

Shimada

Okazawa

Aryan

Gulab

Mustafa

A. E. M. A.

Rizwana

Ahlawat

Y. K.

Elansary

H. O.

(2023). Quantification of Amu River riverbank erosion in Balkh Province of Afghanistan during 2004 – 2020. Land, 12(10), 1890. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101890

18.

Mallick

(2021). Staying despite riverbank erosion : Evidence of coastal. SN Social Sciences, 1(6), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00104-x

19.

Mallick

Parvin

(2019). Risk informed early warning system and non-migration pattern riverbank erosion areas (pp. 1–29). BRAC Humanitarian Programme, BRAC. https://www.academia.edu/40346168/Risk_informed_early_warning_system_and_non_migration_pattern_riverbank_erosion_areas

20.

Mamun

A. A.

Islam

A. R. M. T.

Alam

Chandra Pal

Alam

G. M. M.

(2022). Assessing riverbank erosion and livelihood resilience using traditional approaches in northern Bangladesh. Sustainability, 14(4), 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042348

21.

Mitra

Roy

A. K.

Tamang

(2020). Assessing the status of changing channel regimes of Balason and Mahananda River in the sub-Himalayan West Bengal, India. Earth Systems and Environment, 4(2), 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00160-y

22.

Mollah

T. H.

Ferdaush

(2015). Riverbank erosion, population migration and rural vulnerability in Bangladesh (A case study on Kazipur Upazila at Sirajgonj District). Environment and Ecology Research, 3(5), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.13189/eer.2015.030502

23.

Monirul Alam

G. M.

Alam

Mushtaq

(2018). Drivers of food security of vulnerable rural households in Bangladesh: Implications for policy and development. South Asia Economic Journal, 19(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1391561418761075

24.

Rahman

Popke

Crawford

T. W.

(2022a). Resident perceptions of riverbank erosion and shoreline protection: A mixed - methods case study from Bangladesh. Natural Hazards, 114(3), 2767–2786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05489-3

25.

Rahman

M. M.

Islam

M. N.

(2017). Bank erosion pattern analysis by delineation of course migration of the Padma River at harirampur upazila using satellite images and GIS Part II. Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 06(02), Article 1000284. https://doi.org/10.4172/2381-8719.1000284

26.

Rahman

M. S.

Gain

(2020). Adaptation to river bank erosion induced displacement in Koyra Upazila of Bangladesh. Progress in Disaster Science, 5(3), Article 100055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2019.100055

27.

Rahman

S. A.

Islam

M. M.

Salman

M. A.

Rafiq

M. R.

(2022b). Evaluating bank erosion and identifying possible anthropogenic causative factors of Kirtankhola River in Barishal, Bangladesh: An integrated GIS and remote sensing approaches. International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, 7(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.26833/ijeg.947493

28.

Sachdev

B. K.

(2021). A study on how Bangladesh Agriculture sector and rural development has become a role model for other underdeveloped countries to reduce poverty and unemployment. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 8(10), 1–7.

29.

Siddik, M. A., Zaman, A. K. M. M., Islam, M. R., Hridoy, S. K., & Akhtar, M. P . (2017). Socio-economic impacts of river bank erosion: a case study on coastal island of Bangladesh. The Journal of NOAMI, 34(2), 73–84.

30.

Sekac

Jana

S. K.

(2014). Change detection of Busu river course in Papua New Guinea-impact on local settlements using remote sensing and GIS technology. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research, 5(8), 891–899.

31.

Tamang

(2013). Human induced bank failures along the lower Balason River in Darjeeling district, West Bengal. An Online International Journal, 3(3), 1–8. https://www.cibtech.org/jgee.htm

32.

Uddin

Alam

J. B.

Khan

Z. H.

Hasan

G. M. J.

Alam

(2015). Numerical Simulation: Hydro-Morphology of Meghna Estuary. Journal of Ocean and Climate: Science, Technology and Impacts, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.1260/1759-3131.6.4.173

33.

Uddin

A. F. M. A.

Basak

J. K.

(2012). Effects of riverbank erosion on livelihood. Unnayan Onneshan-The Innovators: Dhaka, Bangladesh.

34.

Yao

Jia

Xiao

(2011). Geomorphology Bank erosion and accretion along the Ningxia – Inner Mongolia reaches of the yellow river from 1958 to 2008. Geomorphology, 127(1–2), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.12.010

35.

Zhang

Shu

Zhang

(2019). Quantification of river bank erosion by RTK GPS monitoring: Case studies along the ningxia-inner Mongolia reaches of the yellow river, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191(3), 140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7269-7