Abstract
Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) benefit from person-centered transition planning. However, there are few practical guidelines for conducting individualized transition assessments that include interviews with this population. This article describes multiple strategies that special educators can implement to conduct interviews, develop rapport, and encourage students with EBD to take a leadership role in the transition process. Materials are provided for selecting appropriate interview topics, monitoring the use of strategies, and developing effective questions.
Keywords
Over the past few decades, students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) have graduated from high school and gone to college at higher rates than ever before. However, many continue to have poor adult outcomes related to low rates of employment and high rates of incarceration (Wagner & Newman, 2012).
During school, students with EBD face a number of challenges related to discipline, bullying, and absenteeism that contribute to future postschool outcomes (Lipscomb et al., 2017). Specifically, the report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012 found that (a) 65% of students with EBD have received an out-of-school suspension compared to only 29% of students with disabilities overall; (b) 48% of students with EBD have been teased or called names at school compared to only 37% of students with disabilities overall; and (c) 9% of students with EBD cut or skip class weekly compared to only 4% of students with disabilities overall. Although academic, social-emotional, and behavioral strategies are certainly necessary to improve these outcomes and in-school experiences, transition planning is an understudied area that can have a positive impact on a student’s experience during school and after exiting. Unfortunately, students with EBD often report negative experiences with the transition planning process (Flower et al., 2015).
For the transition component of the Individualized Education Program (IEP), as mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 2004), special education teachers and/or transition specialists are required to consider students’ strengths, preferences, and interests and invite them to participate in the process alongside parents, teachers, and other professionals. By learning about the unique perspectives and abilities of students with EBD through a variety of assessments, including in-depth interviews, special educators can design plans and services that are more likely to be person-centered (Thoma & Tamura, 2013).
Programs such as Project ARIES (Bullis et al., 2002) and RENEW (Malloy et al., 2010) employed a person-centered approach and demonstrated success in improving the transition outcomes of students with EBD. This approach begins with students sharing their life history, dreams for the future, and perceived obstacles to reaching their goals. A team of natural (e.g., family, friends) and interagency supports then uses this information to implement an individualized transition plan (Malloy et al., 2010). Students with EBD and their families report especially benefiting from the “flexible” nature of services and “personal” connection with providers (Bullis et al., 2002, pp. 52–53). Although there is evidence for the effectiveness of these transition programs, which consist of a combination of assessment and intervention strategies, little research has been conducted on specific strategies, in particular interviews, to provide guidance to special educators in implementing person-centered transition planning (Cheney, 2010).
Transition Assessment
Interviews are an important component of the comprehensive and ongoing transition assessment process. IDEA (2004) requires that postsecondary goals in transition plans address data from age-appropriate assessments. Legal decisions have clarified that multiple formal and informal assessments are required and that plans must be updated on an ongoing basis, reflecting a student’s individualized interests and skills (Prince et al., 2014). To support special educators in this process, the National Technical Assistance Center on Transition (NTACT, 2016) developed the Age Appropriate Transition Assessment Toolkit, providing information on available transition assessments, including price, appropriate age range, and targeted domains (e.g., self-determination, work readiness, interests). The most effective transition assessment process employs multiple methods of engagement, including interviews, observations, curriculum-based measures, achievement tests, and surveys, to gather the necessary data to design person-centered experiences (Rowe et al., 2015). As such, Figure 1 depicts transition planning as a cycle of comprehensive and ongoing assessment, service delivery, and progress monitoring. Interviews can inform each stage in the cycle.
Transition assessment cycle.
Experts in the field have also provided a number of suggestions for transition assessment that are especially critical for students with EBD. Two important frameworks are strengths-based approaches (Epstein et al., 2000) and trauma-informed practices (Cavanaugh, 2016). A strengths-based approach to transition assessment addresses the student’s abilities, positive characteristics, and access to supportive individuals and resources. Rather than focusing on deficits or weaknesses, this approach seeks to highlight positive factors such as self-determination, interpersonal communication, and independent living (Carter et al., 2009). It also identifies supportive contexts such as one’s family, community, and culture, incorporating those assets into more authentic transition programming (Carter et al., 2011).
Given the high proportion of students with EBD who have experienced trauma (Mueser & Taub, 2008), special educators can also consider trauma-informed practices within transition assessment. This approach requires a special educator to identify the signs of trauma, provide a supportive environment, and take steps to avoid re-traumatizing situations (Cavanaugh, 2016). To prepare for assessment, special educators should conduct a thorough review of documents, taking note of previous experiences in school or the community, including any involvement in mental health or juvenile justice settings (Miller & Therrien, 2018). They can then administer a variety of assessments, such as a functional behavior assessment (FBA; Mueller et al., 2012), an Environmental Job Assessment Measure (E-JAM; Waintrup & Kelley, 1999), and transition interviews to design trauma-informed supports in preparation for postsecondary or vocational environments.
Transition Interviews
Research-based transition programs for students with EBD begin with person-centered planning activities that allow a special educator to get to know a student, their family and culture, and their vision for the future (Bullis et al., 2002; Malloy et al., 2010). In particular, a transition interview is a powerful way to gain insight into a student’s strengths while being responsive to past experiences with trauma (Cavanaugh, 2016; Epstein et al., 2000). Although most of the literature on transition assessment recommends conducting interviews (Thoma & Tamura, 2013), there are few resources that provide targeted strategies for special educators. Therefore, the following sections provide answers to important questions related to designing and implementing transition interviews for students with EBD.
Designing the Interview
Designing the transition interview of students with EBD can be facilitated through meaningful responses to the following six planning questions. Suggestions for responding meaningfully accompany each question.
What topics should be covered?
Transition interviews should seek to cover a wide range of topics, depending on the special educator’s prior knowledge about the student. An initial transition interview with a new student should cover general topics, and follow-up interviews with well-known students should target more specific areas of interest or concern. Table 1 provides a matrix for special educators to utilize when implementing initial interviews to cover broad areas related to transition. Per IDEA (2004), the matrix includes strengths, preferences, interests, and needs related to the domains of further education/training, employment, and independent living. Specifically, for students with EBD, Cheney (2012) also recommended investigating the area of social supports, which includes the natural and interagency supports that students can utilize in transition. Research has shown that students with EBD have a diverse range of social supports, with some having significant assets and others having significant gaps. These can be explored in transition interviews (Yeager et al., 2020).
Transition Interview Matrix With Sample Questions.
For in-depth follow-up interviews, special educators can investigate additional critical areas beyond those required by IDEA (2004). Related to each transition domain, questions can address research-based predictors of postschool outcomes (Mazzotti et al., 2016). For further education/training, questions can explore parent expectations, exit exams, and experiences the student has had with inclusion in general education. For employment, questions can explore a student’s career awareness and experiences with vocational education or paid work. Last, for independent living, questions can explore a student’s self-care skills, travel skills, and self-determination. By investigating a variety of such research-based predictors of postschool outcomes, special educators can better design transition services that address areas proven to increase a student’s likelihood of transition success (Mazzotti et al., 2016).
What are the different types of interviews?
Just as there are many different types of assessments, there are many different types of interviews. In transition, the most common is the structured interview, which has prewritten questions in a set order. These can be presented in the form of a questionnaire (e.g., Student Dream Sheet; Test et al., 2006) or checklist (e.g., Student Interview for Transition Planning; Kellems & Morningstar, 2010). Structured interviews are beneficial for a number of reasons. Primarily, they are easily administered. Special educators can pose the questions verbally with one student, or they can administer them to an entire class by having students write responses. They can even send the questions home via email, allowing students to think about answers without time constraints or peer distraction.
One limitation of the structured interview is that it does not allow for deviation from pre-written questions. This reduces the interviewer’s ability to individualize questions or follow up for more details. For students with EBD, Kortering et al. (2010, p. 152) recommended a semi-structured transition interview as it allows special educators to “establish rapport,” which may lead to more comfortable, honest, and complete responses. Here, interviewers have a list of pre-written questions or topics, but they can ask follow-up or clarifying questions as needed to garner more nuanced information. During this process, active listening and monitoring of the student’s behaviors are necessary to craft the most engaging questions and decide when to move on to new questions.
The final type of transition interview is the unstructured interview. In the research field, this is often called the open-ended or qualitative interview (Weiss, 1995). With this style, interviewers may have a list of topics, but they allow the conversation to go in unexpected directions depending on the participant’s responses. Especially with students with EBD, this style can be liberating, as trust can develop over the course of the interview, leading to more openness. During the transition planning process, special educators can utilize this style for a life-interview or a person—centered planning interview (Furney, 1996). Life interviews are discussions spanning a student’s life and vision for the future, whereas person-centered planning interviews are discussions about a student’s history, dreams, and fears (Furney, 1996).
When should interviews take place?
After considering which type of interview to select, special educators can determine when to conduct them. Similar to other forms of transition assessment, ongoing transition interviews are preferable to a single annual interview (Rowe et al., 2015). For example, a special educator may hold an introductory interview at the beginning of the school year and then brief interviews after each grading period (e.g., quarterly), before annual IEP meetings, and at the completion of major transition activities (e.g., internships, college visits). Having multiple interviews allows the special educator to build rapport with the student and monitor their response to programming throughout the year.
Another way to consider when to conduct transition interviews is to plan them around other forms of assessment. Like mixed-methods research, this technique can begin with formal or quantitative measures and then incorporate follow-up interviews to expand on previous findings (Creswell, 2014). The quantitative results help special educators categorize a student’s interests, monitor their progress toward a skill over time, or even compare their abilities to a nationally normed sample (NTACT, 2016). Follow-up interviews explore why a student chose certain responses, how they felt when completing the assessment, and whether they agree with the results of the assessment. Especially for students with EBD, these follow-up interviews can be beneficial in exploring how a student’s emotional state influenced the way they responded to assessment items.
Who should facilitate the interview?
Most frequently, the special educator will conduct the transition assessments, including the interview. However, other important transition team members, including general education teachers, counselors, outside agency members, and even parents can take the lead. A student might open up or express a specific transition goal to one individual that they might be uncomfortable sharing with another. For students with EBD, it may be necessary to have the individual who has the strongest relationship with the student conduct the interview. Still, other transition team members whose relationships are not as strong should make consistent efforts throughout the school year to conduct shorter or more informal interviews to build trust.
If the individuals involved in the interview process have differing language preferences or proficiencies, it will also be necessary to involve an interpreter to translate. IDEA (2004) requires that all assessments, meetings, and documents be provided in the preferred language of the student or parents. Although scheduling an interpreter can be an additional step, language barriers must not get in the way of the comprehensive transition assessment. More et al. (2013) provided a few recommendations for planning interpreted interactions in special education, including (a) meeting with the interpreter beforehand to learn about their style, (b) avoiding the use of jargon, (c) respecting cultural norms and the participant’s preferred level of participation, and (d) asking for the participant’s level of satisfaction and any advice for future interactions. By following these guidelines, interview leaders are more likely to find success.
Although professional or family-led interviews are most common, students can also take charge by conducting their own interviews. Students can interview parents, teachers, or other role models to learn from their perspectives about what should be included in a transition plan. For students with EBD, this can be an opportunity to practice critical interpersonal communication and social skills. It can also be an effective way to teach self-determination and self-advocacy, preparing students to take a leadership role in transition planning and IEP meetings (Davis & Cumming, 2019). The Garrett Center (2017) developed the Student-led Parent Interview to have students and parents reflect together on their views about transition strengths, interests, and goals, recommending that special educators treat it as an extra-credit assignment. This high level of student leadership is critical for a person-centered approach.
Should interviews be one-on-one or in a group?
Given the private nature of special education services, most transition interviews tend to be one-on-one. However, special educators can also facilitate group interviews, or focus groups, so students can share common experiences, learn about each other, and build relationships (Krueger & Casey, 2014). One suggested course of action is to conduct preliminary group interviews in the first stages of transition planning and then one-on-one follow-up interviews at later stages. The group setting allows students to build off the perspective of others, while the individualized setting allows investigation into more intimate topics. For focus groups, special educators can form a variety of different groupings of between two and six participants, including students only, a student and their family or friends, or a student and their transition team of family, friends, and professionals. For students with EBD, it is especially important for the focus group leader to set clear expectations about what will be discussed and how participants should interact, making sure that all involved are prepared and supported for a positive experience. For one-on-one interviews, special educators can follow up about the more private issues related to transition. Students with EBD have reported appreciating this personalized approach, especially when special educators demonstrate true caring (Flower et al., 2015).
Where should interviews take place?
Finally, after considering all aspects of the interview, special educators can determine where it should take place. Although privacy is important, a confined space may not always be appropriate or safe. Special educators should always know a school’s policies related to assessing students individually or removing them from class. If interviews in a private classroom or conference room are not appropriate, special educators can consider rooms with windows or open doors, a public location (e.g., the main office, cafeteria, hallway), or in the proximity of other individuals (e.g., paraprofessionals, family members, other students). For students with EBD, the presence of these other individuals may be necessary per their IEP to implement positive behavior management strategies and reduce instances of defiance, aggression, or withdrawal. If those behavioral supports are only available during the school day, it may be necessary to remove the student from a class to conduct the interview. If before school, after school, or during lunch are options, these times can provide additional flexibility and prevent the removal of the student from instruction. Of course, if the special educator is not leading the interview, it can take place in any location that is preferable to both the student and interviewer (e.g., home, community agency).
Implementing the Interview
Conducting a successful transition interview of students with EBD can be facilitated through meaningful responses to the following two implementation-focused questions. Suggestions for responding meaningfully accompany each question.
How can special educators positively frame an interview?
After designing the interview, special educators need to consider a number of additional factors to ensure a positive experience for all involved. When interviewing students with EBD, special educators should pay close attention to positive behavioral supports and the student’s specific social-emotional needs (Cheney, 2010). Along with IEP considerations, special educators can utilize a checklist to monitor their use of general pre-, during-, and post-interview strategies (see Table 2). The consideration of each step can help build trust between the special educator and student, preventing negative or relationship-damaging situations.
Interview Strategies Checklist.
Before conducting the interview, special educators should avoid negative interactions that lead students to withhold information during the interview or decide not to participate. By sharing stories about personal transition experiences (e.g., first job, freshman year of college), a special educator can demonstrate a level of openness that will translate to the student. In addition, by providing strengths-based assessments, bringing in guest speakers with similar life experiences, or pre-teaching strategies for reflection (e.g., journaling), a student will be more likely to have the skills to reflect during interviews. Last, conversations with family members, previous teachers, or others can offer individualized tips for engaging in conversations with specific students (e.g., what topics not to bring up, what questions to focus on).
After taking the necessary steps to prepare, special educators will find themselves in a strong position to conduct a positive transition interview. Still, the setting and the interactions during the interview are critical. A special educator should select a comfortable and quiet setting with all participants sitting at the same level to avoid a power imbalance that can result in discomfort. Before the official questions, they should check to see how the student is doing and make sure they are aware of the parameters of the interview (e.g., length, purpose, expectations). For example, special educators can thank the student for their voluntary participation ahead of time rather than making it seem like a requirement, and they can make the interview seem like a special occasion by providing water or a snack, framing it like a podcast or a televised interview. Then, after completed responses, the special educator should always provide behavior-specific praise (e.g., “I really like how you went into so much detail in that story about your first paid work experience”) and incorporate what the student just said into the lead-in for the next question (e.g., “It sounds like your first job didn’t go as planned. What would make your next job better?”).
Once the interview is over, the special educator can again express gratitude and provide individualized positive reinforcement per the student’s IEP. It is important to be transparent about next steps in the transition planning process and provide the student with information about how interview data will be shared with others and when future transition planning events will take place. Finally, the special educator should follow up with the student throughout the year to see if their perspectives about transition have shifted. Often, a transition interview will spark introspection or further conversations with friends and family members. A student may change their responses (e.g., about where they want to go to college) after giving the topic more consideration or hearing from others. The special educator should be responsive to these changes and continue both formal interviews and informal conversations as much as possible to deepen trust and continue developing rapport.
What are the best ways to ask questions during an interview?
In addition to positively framing the interview, special educators should seek to ask questions that elicit a high level of engagement. There are no right or wrong ways to ask questions. Interviewers develop their own style and use language that is natural to them. Still, a few techniques can be helpful. Seidman (2013, pp. 81–96) provides some general advice such as, “listen more, talk less, and ask real questions,” and some more novel ideas, such as asking participants to role-play or reconstruct a situation. Role-playing can be used during transition interviews to spark conversation and consider issues from another perspective. Some samples of this technique include the following:
“Imagine if I were speaking with your mother, what would she say about you living on your own after high school?”
“Pretend you are your best friend, what would she say are your best qualities as a person?”
“Let’s say your English teacher is sitting here right now, what would he say you need to work on to improve your score on the ACT to go to college?”
The following paragraphs provide six additional considerations for framing transition interview questions for students with EBD (see Seidman, 2013; Weiss, 1995 for more guidance). Examples and non examples of potential questions in each category are also given.
How can I encourage descriptive responses? Interview questions should elicit responses that are descriptive and nuanced rather than just one word, like “yes” or “no.” If students provide incomplete answers, rephrase follow-up questions in a way that shows interest or curiosity. Often, with enough think-time and encouragement, students will gain the comfort to open up with more detail and specificity. • Example: “If you go college, what are some areas you’d like to study and why?” • Nonexample: “Will you go to college or not?”
How can I ensure my questions are understandable? Complicated questions rarely elicit strong responses, and sometimes the simplest question elicits the most complex answer. Any terms or language used should be well-known to the student. When interviewing, define professional jargon from special education like transition planning, vocational rehabilitation, and self-determination. • Example: “Can you describe a time you stood up for yourself?” • Nonexample: “Can you evaluate some instances you demonstrated critical self-determination skills in the community, at home, and in school?”
How can I encourage students to generate unique responses? If students are reluctant, avoid resorting to asking leading questions to elicit certain responses. Although it may be beneficial to provide some examples, do not interject too many personal beliefs or opinions. Instead, always encourage students come up with their own responses that reflect their unique perspectives. • Example: “Where do you plan on living the summer after high school?” • Nonexample: “After high school you’re going to live with your father, right?”
How can I make sure the questions follow an appropriate sequence? Jumping from one topic to an unrelated topic can be jarring if it does not follow the natural flow of the conversation. When this is done, it can seem as though the interviewer is not interested, and the student’s answers can become shorter and shorter over time. Instead, be genuine, listen, and generate questions that connect to what the student just said. • Example: “What are some of your hobbies? In the future, could you see any of those hobbies becoming a job?” • Nonexample: “What are some of your hobbies? Do you want to go to college in town or out of state?”
How can I keep questions positive? If the interview feels negative—like an interrogation instead of a conversation—make it clear that there are no right or wrong answers. Explain that the purpose of the transition interview is to gain information about the student’s vision for the future and not a time for judgment or confrontation about grades, attendance, or behavior. • Example: “On-time and regular attendance is important for all jobs. What type of job would make you excited to show up on-time every day?” • Nonexample: “You have to show up on time every day to keep a job. Why aren’t you able to do this?”
How can I personalize questions? Always attempt to connect questions back to prior discussions with the student. Framing questions with a personalized statement can demonstrate that the interviewer has listened in the past and will be likely to continue to listen in the future. This is an opportunity to prove trustworthiness that will build throughout the transition planning process. • Example: “In class, you mentioned that you worked in a hardware store last summer. What were the best and worst parts of that job?” • Nonexample: “Have you ever worked, volunteered, or had any chores?”
Conclusion
Interviews are a critical part of the person-centered transition planning process. For special educators working with students with EBD, the interview can be more than just a data collection opportunity but also a time to build trust and rapport. Beyond the questionnaire, special educators can design and implement a variety of unstructured, group, or assessment follow-up interviews. To develop self-advocacy and communication skills, students can lead their own interviews with parents, teachers, or peers. Transition interviews and questioning strategies can take a lot of preparation and practice, but when conducted effectively, they supplement other more formal assessments and lead to more person-centered transition plans that give students with EBD a voice in the planning process and more positive transition experiences.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
