Has Journalism Education Kept Up With Digital Transformation?

Abstract

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Journalism is a highly technology-dependent profession, and students, educators, and professionals must develop specific digital skills. This study uses the theory of disruptive innovation to examine how journalism educators adapt their programs in response to changing media environments. A survey of accredited journalism and mass communication programs identified three key challenges: the need for long-term investment, the ability to predict future change and demand, and difficulty in hiring faculty expertise. When asked which technologies will affect journalism curricula in the next 3 to 5 years, artificial intelligence (AI) topped the list, followed by drone journalism, virtual reality, and augmented reality.

Keywords

journalism mass communication education curriculum digital transformation technology

Introduction

In the digital world, journalism is a highly technology-dependent profession. From gathering information for news stories to reaching the audience on mobile devices, technology is an essential part of the process. Perhaps the most important fact is that technology is no longer simply providing tools for journalists to do their jobs, it is a powerful force reshaping nearly everything about the profession (Goni & Tabassum, 2020). As a result, journalism students, educators, and professionals demand the development of specific digital skills such as writing SEO-friendly headlines and creating scrollable stories for mobile audiences, shooting and editing 360° videos, and programming skills like HTML (Lee, 2022). Educational institutions must also prepare future journalists for a continually changing and increasingly complex workplace, which also expects graduates to have traditional journalism skills, such as solid news judgment and strong writing abilities (Ferrucci & Perreault, 2021).

This study examines how journalism educators adapt their programs to respond to changing media environments and the demands of professional journalism in the digital age. It explores which technology, skills, and knowledge should inform the core of journalism education today and how the core may evolve into the future.

Specifically, we assess which new technologies have been recently incorporated into U.S. programs accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) and which technologies these programs expect to add to the curriculum in the next 3 to 5 years.

A secondary aim of this study is to determine the confidence level of U.S. journalism programs to keep up with ongoing digital transformation in the industry. Finally, this research explores factors that may help journalism education overcome the challenges of digital transformation.

Literature Review

The field of journalism is one now characterized by technology and interactivity. As Pavlik (2000) predicted, new media has transformed traditional journalism because of its ability to be interactive, on-demand, and customizable, combining text, images, moving images, and sound. For decades, the journalism industry and journalism education have struggled to address the challenges created by this new paradigm. According to Hansen (2005) social, economic, and technological trends influenced the exercise of communication and the traditions of the academy. “Both are under severe economic pressure. And both the media industry and educational institutions at all levels are struggling to understand and keep up with the technological changes that are challenging every assumption they have had for decades” (p. 131).

Journalism Curriculum Models and Concepts

Industry pressures prompted academic research into the gaps between what journalism schools teach and what employers want (Adams, 2008; Lepre & Bleske, 2005; McDonough et al., 2009) and led some researchers to recommend that educators and industry professionals work together to develop curricula focused on using current technology (Brown & Collins, 2010; Cremedas & Lysak, 2011; Wenger & Owens, 2013). Although educators have historically been slow to adapt to and incorporate new technologies into the curriculum (e.g., Beard, 1991; Singer et al., 1996; Voakes et al., 2002), scholars have found the shift to multiple media platforms in the newsroom has resulted in corresponding changes in journalism school curricula (Castañeda et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2006).

Discussions about curriculum in light of the digital revolution have become increasingly important to the future of journalism and journalism education. Gotlieb et al. (2017) conducted an online survey of 182 journalism programs. The purpose of the survey was to find out, among other specifics, what changes in curriculum were occurring in these schools. Quantitative data demonstrated a significant drop in enrollment for more conventional journalism majors and programs, and there was unmistakable evidence that curricular adjustments were shifting toward a digital paradigm. These researchers identified the movement as schools’ responsiveness to what employers in the journalism industry desired, which included HTML coding, data analytics, digital design, new media literacy, visual storytelling, real-world problem-solving, entrepreneurship, and diversity and cultural awareness.

Journalism Education and Technology

As digital technology keeps evolving, both the profession and journalism curricula must as well. For decades, journalism faculty have felt overwhelmed by the pressures of adjusting to ever-changing technology and related skills (Beam et al., 2002), and both academicians and practitioners have felt pressure to stay ahead of the most recent technological advancements affecting their work (Walck et al., 2015).

The speed at which digital media creates and remakes its reality is startling at both the professional and academic levels (Drake, 2017), and in trying to keep up, research suggests that journalism programs can make some missteps. Some schools emphasize the technology itself, which according to veteran digital journalists, is a problem they are observing in graduates entering the field (Ferrucci, 2017). The veteran practitioners indicated that programs should offer a balance between technology and traditional journalism, with more time devoted to traditional journalism (Ferrucci, 2017). Eschenfelder (2020) also found that television news professionals think students need improvement in areas including writing skills, finding story ideas, storytelling, and writing to deadlines rather than more technological prowess. However, in other programs, curriculum change needs to be executed more quickly and thoughtfully, otherwise faculty can feel caught between a patchwork of technological quick hits and the challenges of full-scale curriculum reform (Mills, 2017).

Over the majority of the 21^st century, journalism instructors have fought over how to educate students effectively. Although it is obvious that today’s curriculum needs a good dose of technology, how to make that happen and how much technology to include remains an issue (Pavlik, 2013). One concern journalism educators have when building a curriculum is how much emphasis should be placed on emerging technologies: Whether should they become the focal point of all curricula at the detriment of more conventional abilities (Anderson, 2014).

Disruptive Innovation

Christensen (2013) introduced the concept of disruptive innovation to demonstrate how technological advances may have a significant impact on an industry. Christensen’s approach builds on the theory of punctuated equilibrium Gersick (1991) brought into management research, in which organizations have periods of stable operation, interrupted by (relatively) brief periods of dramatic upheaval.

According to Christensen, when a disruptive innovation approaches an industry, executives cannot simply adapt and go forward because "mastery of old technology does not imply mastery of new technology" (Anderson & Tushman, 1991). According to Christensen (2013), when a game-changing technological breakthrough happens within an industry, the industry often suffers because leaders are typically too slow to adapt. In many cases, and in particular with technological changes, practitioners who are either young or new to the field become the strongest catalysts for the new paradigm, because they are not bound by the field’s traditions (Gersick, 1991).

Moreover, market leaders, understandably, regularly regard disruptive innovations as threats rather than opportunities and expend economic capital striving to ward off disruptive innovation (Anderson & Tushman, 1991). To prosper following a disruptive invention, those affected must acknowledge the innovation right away, quickly establish its core skills, and move forward with precision (Barrett et al., 2015). Lüders (2016) found that innovation work requires creativity, proceeding from an idea to an executed innovation, and is an example of high-level collaboration, demanding high levels of responsibility, reciprocal trust, shared aim, mutual benefits, and risks.

García-Avilés et al. (2019) examined and contributed to the idea of journalism innovation, its execution, and the direct implications for those media outlets attempting to innovate. They found the innovation processes addressed in four main areas of journalistic practice: content creation, dissemination, newsroom structure, and revenue generation. The findings support previous research (Bleyen et al., 2014; Dogruel, 2014; García-Avilés et al., 2016) that highlights the importance of innovation processes in dealing with the uncertain evolution of a disruptive market (Schmitz Weiss & Domingo, 2010; Spyridou et al., 2013). Furthermore, researchers defined innovation as a combination of figuring out and seizing a possibility, developing a novel idea in the field of products, technologies, processes, or resources, and implementing it through professional practices (Anthony, 2017; Raetzsch, 2015).

In recent decades, the necessity for innovation in the media industry has become both more critical and more difficult as the pace and scope of technological advancements have increased. Increasingly, the innovation critical to success in media involves connecting content and technology (Küng, 2013). Journalists today rely on technology as an essential element of the reporting process, and employers want new workers to grasp how to present stories across different platforms using various tools (Lasorsa et al., 2012; Ryfe, 2009; Tandoc & Vos, 2016). As a result, journalism curricula now incorporate a greater emphasis on developing technology skills (Walck et al., 2015). As outlined by Christensen (2013), when confronted with disruptive innovation, journalism programs had two options: change or remain the same; if they decided to change, they faced the liability of newness. For example, when innovations challenge established norms or threaten existing jobs, there is often resistance, especially if the innovating does not seem to enhance journalistic quality (Appelgren & Nygren, 2014; Ferrucci et al., 2020; Nelson, 2018). Journalism programs have had to tackle uncertainty and unpredictability that previously did not exist by adapting and adjusting their older procedures. While stable or old organizations tend to thrive, the corollary is that stable organizations have difficulty adjusting to change (Hannan & Freeman, 1984), a problem that has historically plagued journalism education.

As professional journalism fully embraces digital technologies, journalism educators must as well, and they must commit to staying abreast of industry applications of communications technology. To do so, those responsible for curriculum must seek out information about current industry practices as they relate to technology. In the 2022 Reuters Digital News Report, publishers indicated they would be putting more resources into podcasts and digital audio (80%), and just 8% said they would be creating new applications for the metaverse such as VR and AR (Newman, 2022). With the expanded capability of generative AI tools such as GPT-3 to produce effective content at a low cost, there is now elevated risk of massive disruption across numerous industries, including journalism, according to Schwartz (2023). In turn, journalism organizations and journalism educators must determine how or even if they will integrate AI and other emerging technologies into their workflows. Identifying an appropriate response to emerging technologies and digital platforms is difficult because the overall value and impact of these innovations are seldom clear from the beginning (Bressers, 2006; Day & Schoemaker, 2000; Imre & Wenger, 2020). For that reason, ongoing research into journalism curricula is essential for both educators and the profession.

In this study, we adopt the disruptive innovation lens to frame our investigation of technologies in journalism curricula. To that end, we propose the following research questions for study:

Research Question 1 (RQ1): What digital technologies have journalism education programs integrated into their degree programs and which do they plan to add in the near future?

Research Question 2 (RQ2): What are the challenges for journalism education in keeping up with digital transformation in the journalism industry?

Method

Journalism continues to evolve, and academics must recognize and incorporate new skills into the curriculum on an ongoing basis. The goal of this research is two-fold: To determine which newer media technologies are already included in journalism program curricula and which technologies program leaders expect to add in the near future as well as to ascertain the obstacles and needs program leaders must address when it comes to keeping curriculum current.

This study used a survey research approach relying on convenience sampling and a cross-sectional survey to collect information from the sample populations (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1992). The target population for the study included deans, chairs, or directors of the 102 U.S. journalism programs fully accredited by the Accrediting Council on Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC). At the time of the survey, nine more programs had provisional status and eight were international programs—neither of these groups were included. The survey yielded 42 responses, but as one response was incomplete, the final survey yielded 41 for a response rate of 40%.

The researchers explored the previously published literature on journalism education and digital transformation and relied on similar surveys to design this study’s questionnaire. As the survey was associated with individual human respondents, the researchers sought IRB approval, which was granted on October 26, 2022.

Results

This study aims to identify what program leaders say they need most to keep up with the evolution of journalism, the biggest challenges they perceive, and how they are addressing or plan to address technology-related instruction in the curriculum and the technology-driven courses and modules currently offered by schools fully accredited by the ACEJMC. The research also explores how confident U.S. journalism and mass communication programs are that they can keep up with ongoing digital transformation in the industry.

When asked about the challenges of digital transformation in journalism education, respondents were asked to assess nine factors using a Likert-type scale (see Table 1). Three factors emerged as the most difficult according to the greatest percentage of program leaders: the need for long-term investment (47.37%), the ability to predict future change and demand (35.9%), and difficulty in hiring faculty expertise (30.77%) were all said to be very challenging. When combining the “very challenging” and the “somewhat” challenging responses, managing the continuous process of change (84.24%) and funding for equipment purchases (74.36%) also emerged as key concerns.

Table 1.

Challenges of Digital Transformation in Journalism Education.

#	Question	Very challenging, %	Somewhat challenging, %	Neutral, %	Not very challenging, %	Not at all challenging, %	Total
1	Need for long-term investment	47.37	34.21	13.16	5.26	0.00	38
2	Ability to predict future change and demand	35.90	38.46	15.38	10.26	0.00	39
3	Difficulty in hiring faculty expertise	30.77	48.72	7.69	10.26	2.56	39
4	Funding for equipment purchases	28.21	46.15	5.13	17.95	2.56	39
5	Continuous process of change	26.32	57.89	10.53	5.26	0.00	38
6	Faculty resistance	15.38	10.26	30.77	30.77	12.82	39
7	Effort to revise curriculum	12.82	35.90	33.33	15.38	2.56	39
8	Need for appropriate lab space	10.00	42.50	17.50	20.00	10.00	40
9	Students aren’t adept at technology	5.13	12.82	23.08	46.15	12.82	39

Two items emerged as being of relatively little concern to program leaders: Faculty resistance (43.59%) and the issue of students’ technological abilities (58.97%) were considered either not very challenging or not challenging at all.

When it comes to technology-driven courses or modules within courses currently included in journalism curricula, ten options were listed, and participants were asked to choose all that apply. Social media, video journalism, and multimedia journalism were the most often included. Ninety-three percent (93%) of respondents said they currently included social media and video journalism in the curriculum. Furthermore, 90% include multimedia journalism, podcasting (83%), data-driven journalism (78%), and mobile journalism (76%; see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Technology-Driven Courses or Modules Currently Included.

Regarding the question about the technologies journalism programs have incorporated into the curriculum in the last 3 to 5 years, nine options were provided and the participants were asked to check all that were applicable. Eighty percent of respondents indicated they had incorporated video streaming into their journalism curriculum in the last 3 to 5 years, 73% had added data analysis, followed by data visualization (71%), drone journalism (54%), virtual reality (37%), augmented reality (24%), and artificial intelligence (20%; see Figure 2).

Figure 2

Technologies Have Been Incorporated Into the Curriculum in the Last 3–5 Years.

When asked which technologies they planned to incorporate into the journalism curriculum in the next 3 to 5 years, the same nine options were listed and participants were asked to check all that apply. Artificial intelligence (AI) was selected by 51% of respondents, followed by drone journalism (46%), virtual reality (44%), and augmented reality (44%). In addition, 37% of participants said they will add data analysis and data visualization, 29% video streaming and 27% will incorporate animation in their curriculum within 3 to 5 years (see Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Technologies Planned for the Curriculum in the Next 3–5 Years.

Program heads indicated that they are either very positive (24%) or somewhat positive (61%) that they will be able to keep up with ongoing digital transformation in the industry (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Confident to Keep Up With Ongoing Digital Transformation in the Industry.

When asked about the most important factors in helping journalism education overcome the challenges of digital transformation, respondents were asked to assess 10 factors using a Likert-type scale (see Table 2). At least half of all respondents considered the following the most critical to their ability to succeed: more funding (67.57%), hiring faculty with newer technology skills (52.63%), growing undergraduate enrollment (51.35%), and support from the university administration (50%).

Table 2.

Factors Helping Journalism Education With Challenges of Digital Transformation.

#	Question	Most important, %	Somewhat important, %	Neutral, %	Not important, %	Total
1	More funding	67.57	27.03	5.41	0.00	37
2	Hiring faculty with newer technology skills	52.63	47.37	0.00	0.00	38
3	Growing undergraduate journalism enrollment	51.35	32.43	13.51	2.70	37
4	Support from the university administration	50.00	36.84	13.16	0.00	38
5	Retraining current faculty in digital skills	45.95	45.95	8.11	0.00	37
6	More faculty lines	43.59	46.15	7.69	2.56	39
7	More industry-academic partnerships	37.84	43.24	18.92	0.00	37
8	Hiring staff with newer technology skills	28.95	42.11	26.32	2.63	38
9	More room in the curriculum for classes dedicated to technology skills	24.32	32.43	29.73	13.51	37

Discussion and Conclusion

The theory of disruptive innovation provides valuable insights into the ongoing challenges faced by journalism education in the context of technological disruption. Central to the theory lies a comprehension of the impact of disruptive innovation on institutions. According to Ferrucci (2017), prior studies have indicated that journalism schools first exhibited a sluggish response to the technological advancements that permeated the media business. However, most programs gradually integrated technological tools and practices into their curricula over time.

Today, there remains significant discussion among journalism educators about how to address the ongoing infusion of technology through the curriculum—not just within separate courses but also as a cohesive plan to train student journalists for the digital news age (Bright, 2018). However, the narrative among educators has changed over time as technological disruption has accelerated. An early survey of journalism instructors conducted by Voakes et al. (2002) found that educators had high self-confidence in their capacity to master new technologies. However, journalism instructors often reported being stressed out by technology on the job. They mentioned technological stress more often than tenure and promotion worries and personal difficulties. (Voakes et al., 2002).

RQ1 explored what digital technologies journalism education programs have integrated into degree programs and which do they plan to add in the near future. According to the findings, social media has become an essential part of journalism education as a recognized platform for news dissemination and audience engagement. As such, 93% of respondents indicated that social media is included in their journalism curricula.

Video journalism has also become nearly ubiquitous with 93% of respondents indicating that video news production is currently included in their programs. Instruction in multiple-platform journalism is also fundamental to journalism education as 90% of respondents include multimedia journalism in the curriculum. A vast majority of programs also include podcasting (83%), data-driven journalism (78%), and mobile journalism (76%) in the curriculum, all of which are evidence of journalism education’s efforts to stay current with journalism production and dissemination trends.

From a theoretical perspective, disruptive innovation suggests that organizations often fail when they make misguided assumptions about what their best customers want (Christensen, 2013). Applied to journalism education, the “customer” is often considered to be the news organizations that hire journalism program graduates. Ferrucci and Perreault (2021), found that while journalism schools have adapted to technological changes, some in the industry see program graduates as lacking fundamental journalism skills, and the findings of this study suggest that the trend may be accelerating.

Looking specifically at technologies that journalism programs have incorporated into their curriculum in the last 3 to 5 years indicates that technology adoption is ongoing. In that time frame, video streaming emerged as the most commonly incorporated technology, with 80% of respondents reporting its integration into their curriculum. Data analysis (73%) and visualization (71%) also appear to be technology-driven curriculum changes that are permeating journalism education.

Fewer respondents reported adding virtual (37%) and augmented reality (24%) and artificial intelligence (20%) to their programs. These newer technologies may be less prevalent in the industry and in journalism programs because they require sometimes significant financial investment and new skills for faculty and practitioners to master. However, the research findings also suggest that program leaders anticipate expanding curricular offerings in these areas in the future.

The results of the survey indicate that journalism schools will continue to incorporate new technologies into the curriculum over the next 3 to 5 years, with a particular focus on Artificial Intelligence (AI), drone journalism, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR). The fact that 51% of respondents plan to incorporate AI into their curriculum in the next 3 to 5 years suggests that journalism program leaders believe this technology is not a passing fad and will become foundational to journalistic practice. However, Sundar and Liao (2023) would urge educators to fully consider the challenges AI tools present, particularly in terms of human agency and authenticity, and suggest that these challenges are opportunities for future research. VR and AR, both mentioned by 44% of participants, seems to also indicate that these technologies are still emerging within journalism curriculum.

Responses related to RQ2 indicate that digital transformation in journalism education continues to present a wide range of issues. Most program leaders believe that more funding is the most important factor in keeping current, with just under 68% of respondents selecting it as the most important option. Hiring faculty with newer technology skills was also seen as crucial, with nearly 53% of respondents identifying that as the most important factor in future success. The challenge of growing undergraduate enrollment (51.35%) was third on the list.

Funding and enrollment challenges and initiatives are the topic of much discussion across the academy, but the difficulty of hiring faculty with the appropriate skillsets is one that affects technology-dependent and professionally oriented programs to a greater extent. Anderson and Tushman (1991) reported that the lack of investment in employee development is a challenge for organizations trying to address disruptive innovation, and journalism programs may be wise to provide more technology-focused training for faculty already on staff. In AEJMC-accredited programs, this may be especially important. Accrediting guidelines require journalism programs to demonstrate that full-time tenured or tenure-track faculty have taught the majority of core and required courses within the curriculum (ACEJMC, 2023), but Voakes et al. (2002) found that tenure-track faculty find keeping up with technology a significant stressor—perhaps because of a required focus on research and publishing at their institutions. Further research exploring solutions to this problem could be of great value to program leaders.

Program leaders do seem to have one less challenge than in the past as faculty resistance is now considered either not very challenging or not challenging at all by a majority of the respondents. This is important as the journalism profession’s entrenched professional identity and culture have often hindered the incorporation of new technologies (Lewis & Usher, 2013), and the theory of disruptive innovation suggests that industry thrives when it can redefine itself and expand its capabilities (King & Baatartogtokh, 2015).

The survey also found that most journalism schools are confident in their ability to stay current with ongoing digital transformation in the industry. With 85% of program leaders responding that they were either very positive or somewhat positive about their programs’ ability to keep up, it is clear that many schools are taking steps to ensure that their curricula are relevant and up-to-date. However, it is essential to note that 11% of respondents said that they were neither positive nor negative, and 3% said that they were slightly negative or negative about adjusting to ongoing digital transformation. This suggests that there may be some schools that are struggling to keep pace with the rapidly evolving media landscape. Due to the relatively small sample size, the researchers did not analyze the findings by program enrollment; however, it may be that smaller programs have more difficulty meeting the challenge, making this a potential avenue for further study.

Interestingly, the survey found that some factors were seen as less important in helping journalism education overcome the challenges of digital transformation. These included finding more room in the curriculum for classes dedicated to technology skills with just 24% indicating this was important to staying current. This may reflect the view that there are fewer obstacles now to adding more technology-focused content into the curriculum, such as previous ACEJMC requirements that limited coursework in the discipline or faculty resistance to change (Bhatia, 2021).

Limitations

This study surveyed fully accredited schools from the United States and did not include eight international schools. There may be useful reflections absent from these findings, particularly from a global perspective. Also, this study examined the instruction involving digital technology that programs have incorporated and plan to incorporate in the recent past or near future. That timeframe is limited and may not fully capture all of the critical changes to the curriculum that have occurred. In addition, technological developments may take the curriculum in a much different direction in the future. The respondents were journalism program leaders, so the student and practitioner views are largely absent, and this study is limited to digital transformation and new technologies but does not cover the overall program review. The most significant limitation of this study, however, is the time-sensitive nature of the field. It will be necessary, therefore, for other researchers to continue to monitor the changes in the industry and adaptation of journalism programs.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Md Sazzad Hossain is a doctoral student at the University of Iowa’s School of Journalism and Mass Communication. Hossain’s research focuse on the impact r of new technology in journalism and communication.

Debora Wenger is a professor of journalism at the University of Mississippi. Wenger’s research focuses on the TV news industry and the skills necessary to produce video and multimedia journalism, isolating best practices in the profession and analyzing the implications for journalism education.

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