Victims in Their Own Right: Assessment of a Bespoke Project to Support 16- to 24-Year-Old Victims of Domestic Violence

Introduction

Projects that support young people who have experienced domestic violence in their interpersonal relationships are scarce and need further research. This is particularly so in England and Wales, where, although already acknowledged by the Home Office since 2012 (HM Government, 2013), only recently, 16- and 17-year-old children were legally recognized as victims in their own right (Domestic Abuse Act, 2021, p. 1). More broadly, the National Audit Office's (2025) report on “value for money” found it difficult to understand what impact the various initiatives in place to address violence against women and girls (VAWG) are having and asked for a coordinated approach that is focused on continuous evaluation, and on learning from “local innovation.” The Domestic Abuse Commissioner (2025a) recently also said that, despite the recognition of children as victims of domestic violence in themselves, services continue to be inadequate, leading her also to call for further research into these.

Domestic violence among younger populations has often been addressed via preventative measures (examples including information on healthy relationships delivered in educational institutions, such as schools or universities); however, concerns have been raised regarding the effectiveness of such approaches (The Children's Society, 2020, p. 21; Ellsberg et al., 2015, p. 1557). The project that forms the basis of this article departs from a solely educational approach. It was delivered by a non-governmental organization (NGO) in the South of England, with funding from a national body. As well as an educational dimension, it included practical support for 16- to 24-year-old victims/service users escaping domestic violence (such as, with safety planning, improving their health and wellbeing and, for some, supported accommodation), with the ultimate aim of empowering them to make meaningful and positive changes to their lives. As part of the commissioning process, the project was evaluated independently when it reached its end to assess whether it had met its intended outcomes. The discussion presented here is based primarily on the qualitative data gathered for this evaluation, more specifically, on 23 interviews with service provider staff, external stakeholders and, importantly, service users themselves.

This article, therefore, responds to the call for a better understanding of the support available for victims of VAWG, including bespoke, local projects (National Audit Office, 2025). In doing so, it demonstrates how the departure from a purely educational approach is beneficial to support young people and helps to highlight NGOs’ central role in delivering specialized support. Some considerations will be made in relation to the sustainability of this model under the existing commissioning landscape, something which will be addressed in more depth in another publication (authors, forthcoming).

As a note on terminology, England and Wales adopted the term “domestic abuse” in 2012 (officially enshrined in law by the Domestic Abuse Act, 2021) to better reflect its complex nature, especially coercive and controlling behavior (HM Government, 2013). The terminology adopted in this article will remain mostly aligned with the term widely used across the world: “domestic violence”; whenever this is not possible, both expressions should be interpreted interchangeably.

Policy and Non-Governmental Organizations

It has been well established that a multidimensional approach (e.g., including community interventions, psychological and emotional support, education, and practical advice) is most successful to support women to escape domestic violence (e.g., Carlisle et al., 2025, p. 2; Hester & Westmarland, 2005, p. 91; Ellsberg et al., 2015, pp. 1555, 1562; Kiani et al., 2021, p. 2; UN Women, 2015). Several strategies have been published in England and Wales reflecting this (e.g., Call to end violence against women and girls: strategic vision (HM Government, 2010), Call to end violence against women and girls: action plan 2011 (HM Government, 2011), Ending violence against women and girls strategy: 2016–2020, updated in 2019 (HM Government, 2016, 2019), Tackling violence against women and girls strategy (HM Government, 2021), Tackling Domestic Abuse Plan (HM Government, 2022a), Women's Health Strategy for England (HM Government, 2022b), Policing Violence Against Women and Girls—The National Framework for Delivery: 2024–2027 (College of Policing and NPCC, 2024), Freedom from Violence and Abuse: a cross-government strategy to build a safer society for women and girls—Volume 1—Strategy and accompanying Action Plan (HM Government, 2025a, 2025b), and the Violence Against Women and Girls Strategy 2025–2030 (CPS, 2025).

Common to these policies is a desire to support women long-term, providing tools that enable them to escape violence in a sustained way (e.g., financial and housing support, education on healthy relationships). This work is often carried out by NGOs (Barter & Stanley, 2016, p. 497; Bradbury-Jones et al., 2025, p. 1; Damery et al., 2024, p. 1), which consistently appear much better rated by service users than statutory agencies (Barnes et al., 2024, pp. 1615–1617; Hester & Westmarland, 2005). However, relying on NGOs to support victims can be problematic; a rise in demand for services, short-term funding, and lack of predictability make it a difficult system in which to operate, impacting the support available and the continuity of interventions (Bradbury-Jones et al., 2025, p. 78; Carlisle et al., 2025; Damery et al., 2024, pp. 4, 6; Domestic Abuse Commissioner, 2025a; Gunby et al., 2024, n.p.). Although the most recent governmental strategy on VAWG promises a “radical transformation of commissioning services” (HM Government, 2025a, p. 54), there is still lack of clarity about how this will translate into practice, whether this will bring long-term funding and what this means for NGOs, particularly smaller and “by-and-for” specialist services, which usually have less capacity to bid successfully for large amounts of funding (Sullivan et al., 2008, p. 293) and, particularly in the aftermath of public spending cuts, have had to either stop offering support for victims or partner with larger organizations (Chang et al., 2003; Domestic Abuse Commissioner, 2022; Domestic Abuse Commissioner, 2025b; Ishkanian, 2014; Sanders-McDonagh et al., 2016; Towers & Walby, 2012).

Age and Need for Intervention Among Younger Populations

It is well known that age is a risk factor, with younger individuals experiencing higher rates of domestic violence than older counterparts in the United Kingdom (Office for National Statistics, 2025) and, globally, an estimated 24% of young women, aged 15–19 years and 26% aged 19–24 years, having experienced violence, at least once, since they were 15 years old (Sardinha et al., 2022, p. 803; WHO, 2021, p. xii). There is also little doubt of domestic violence's negative impact on young people's health and wellbeing, leading to substance abuse, self-harm, disordered eating, post-traumatic stress disorder, miscarriages, sexually transmitted diseases, and even to suicide (Anderson & Saunders, 2003, p. 164; Barnes et al., 2024, p. 1610; Barter, 2009, p. 220; Barter & Stanley, 2016, pp. 491–495).

Research dating to the early 2000s drew attention to the existence of relationship violence among young populations (e.g., Barter et al., 2009; Hird, 2000, p. 178), including that violence tends to endure and even increase post-separation, especially for those who remain in the same social circles as their abusers (Barter, 2009, p. 185). Younger victims also tend to remain in violent relationships due to a lack of help-seeking behaviors (Barter, 2009, p. 219; Barter et al., 2009, p. 196; Barter & Stanley, 2016, p. 495). In addition, findings from survey of 1,143 pupils aged 13–14 years to assess their experiences of domestic violence as victims, witnesses, and perpetrators revealed a need for intervention with even younger age groups than those covered by the legislation in place in England and Wales (16 years old and upwards), ideally before they are 13 years old, as many experience abuse in their relationships by this age (Fox et al., 2014).

Even though it has been found that young people experience violence in their own relationships (Barter et al., 2009; Fox et al., 2014; Hird, 2000), there are significant gaps in, and knowledge on, interventions with young populations, particularly in non-educational settings and with marginalized groups, especially in terms of what works and the impact specialized interventions delivered by NGOs may have (Barnes et al., 2024, p. 1610; Barter & Stanley, 2016, p. 486; Crooks et al., 2018; Weir et al., 2026, p. 2).

Interventions

Interventions specifically for young populations are primarily educational, delivered in schools or universities (Ellsberg et al., 2015, p. 1557; Johnson et al., 2024, p. 238; Stanley et al., 2015, p. xxiv). Addressed within these tend to be gendered power relations, cultural expectations of behavior, and inequalities (Barnes et al., 2024, p. 1610; Barter & Stanley, 2016, p. 485). Indeed, there are different perceptions and experiences of domestic violence between young men and women that lend themselves to different expectations of behavior (Barnes et al., 2024, p. 1610; Fox et al., 2014), and education on healthy relationships enables them to deal with these (Davies, 2019, p. 490).

Evaluations of different educational projects tell us that these can deliver positive results. For example, Warwick-Booth and Cross (2020, p. 14) and Warwick-Booth and Coan (2022, p. 961) found increased confidence and self-esteem of participants, better coping strategies and management of emotions, and healthier relationships. Coburn and Gormally (2014, pp. 660–661) also found increased well-being of participants, decreased self-blame, better coping strategies, and decreased isolation resulting from improvements in confidence, self-belief, trust, and connections to others. Safe Lives (2025a, 2025b, 2025c) datasets on Children and Young People 2023–2024 also found 61% reporting improved safety after engaging with the service, 60% an understanding of unhealthy relationships, 61% how to seek help, and 41% developing coping mechanisms (this data does include different types of abuse: direct and indirect, sexual, physical abuse, coercive and controlling behavior, and family abuse).

As with adults, there is a case for a multidimensional approach to support younger victims of domestic violence (see Barter et al., 2009, p. 197; Kiani et al., 2021, pp. 6–7). The project that is the basis for this article addresses not only the educational aspects mentioned so far, but also provides practical support on safety and financial planning, and emotional and psychological support for victims. This is a departure from the more traditional approach undertaken toward young victims and arguably more in line with developments in research, policy, and legislation that recognize that young people (albeit only those from 16 years of age upwards) experience domestic violence in their own right, including in their own relationships with peers.

The Project

The project that forms the basis of the discussion in this article was directed at victims aged 16 to 24 years, with the aim of empowering them to make meaningful, positive changes to their lives. It was run by an NGO, in the South of England, between 2019 and 2024. Although not targeted at women, its approach was grounded on feminist principles, which are inherent to the service providers’ ethos, was needs-led and trauma-informed. As such, as well as building the approach on the understanding of a gendered nature of domestic violence and subjacent power dynamics (as per the service provider's framework), it incorporated the six principles of trauma-informed approaches (safety, trust, choice, collaboration, empowerment, and cultural consideration) and suggested by the government's working definition of trauma-informed practice (HM Government, 2022c). It was also framed by a Theory of Change developed by the service provider, which gave service users a central role in the development and delivery of the project; service users were regularly involved in discussions and internal surveys and their feedback incorporated into the different outputs (i.e., group work, mentoring, Independent Domestic Violence Adviser—IDVA—engagement and supported accommodation), while the project was ongoing. This also helped keep track of whether these outputs were contributing to the project's intended outcomes, as stated in the bid for funding (“safety,” “health and wellbeing,” “stability and resilience,” “relationships,” and “education and prevention”), and the information was used for annual reports to the funding body.

Internal data from the service provider shows 775 service users reached across the duration of the project. Most service users who completed the demographic questions did not disclose a disability (n = 453), were British (n = 581), heterosexual (n = 318), and female (n = 759) (one service user identified as “male,” one as “gender queer,” and three as “non-binary”). Support lasted up to 18 months, and not all service users engaged with all outputs, as this depended on their specific needs (service provider recorded numbers of service users’ engagement per output over the course of the project are: n = 500 for IDVAs, n = 49 for group work, n = 209 for mentoring, and n = 17 for supported accommodation).

An independent evaluation was commissioned when the project ended; part of this evaluation consisted of determining whether the outcomes it proposed to achieve had been met, as well as an assessment of the implementation of the project more broadly. The results of this evaluation form the basis of this article, with a focus on qualitative data related to its impact on service users; aspects related to its implementation are discussed in a separate publication (authors, forthcoming).

Methodology

The data used in this article relies on 23 interviews with service users (n = 9), service provider staff (n = 8), and external stakeholders (n = 6), conducted between January and May of 2025. A purposive sampling method was used (Campbell et al., 2020). Service users had all completed the program by the time of the interviews and, in line with a trauma-informed approach, were assessed beforehand to be deemed suitable to be interviewed without the risk of revictimization; staff included current and previous employees of the service provider; external stakeholders included various other service providers, law enforcement, and local government agencies. A reflexive qualitative approach was adopted to triangulate with and allow for a deeper understanding of the quantitative data held by the service provider, as suggested by Braun and Clarke (2021) and Patton (2015).

Participants were asked questions specifically on the project's intended outcomes (i.e., safety, health and wellbeing, stability and resilience, relationships and education, and prevention), as well as questions regarding its implementation, and its positive and negative aspects more broadly. Ethical approval was secured from the lead researcher's academic institution, and participants were provided with an information sheet, and informed consent was obtained prior to any primary data being collected. At the time of interviewing, all service users were aged 18 years or older and female. Interviews lasted between 45 and 90 min. Interviews were transcribed for analysis; to ensure anonymity, a numbering system was assigned to participants, and references to any organizations that could identify them were removed. Data gathered by the evaluation team was securely stored and disposed of, as per the lead researcher's research ethics institutional policy.

The research team was mindful of the power imbalances between researcher and participant, and the consequences of this, such as participants feeling under pressure and skewed data (Diab & Al-Azzeh, 2024). To mitigate this, the research team undertook training on trauma in the context of domestic violence, and a “check-in” system was developed to ensure the safety and well-being of participants.

Analysis

A reflexive thematic approach was taken due to its flexibility and usefulness in providing the theoretical freedom that allows for a rich and detailed analysis of data (Berger, 2015; Braun & Clarke, 2021; Finlay, 2002). NVivo 15, a qualitative data analysis software, was used to analyze the transcriptions. Following an initial deductive thematic approach, data were coded to headings selected from the interview schedule and the project bid. These reflected both the intended project outcomes and the questions in relation to its implementation. Working iteratively, an inductive analysis was then conducted, using axial coding, to explore the relationships and patterns of the data. Coding was checked and refined by the researcher primarily responsible for the analysis, following discussion with the research lead and in line with a trauma-informed approach. Care was taken to report findings sensitively and ethically, respecting participants’ privacy and avoiding sensationalism (Diab & Al-Azzeh, 2024). A total of 13 themes were created as a result. Further analysis and regrouping of the themes led to the development of the categories addressed in the findings section of this article.

Findings

The findings presented here are not mapped to the project's intended outcomes. Their focus, instead, is on the most important themes derived from interviews with staff, service providers, and external stakeholders regarding the impact that the project had on those directly involved with it and the community more broadly, which is consistently found to be positive.

These have been categorized and are presented here under the headings: (1) health and wellbeing, (2) confidence and self-esteem, (3) aspirations and resilience, (4) relationships, (5) education, safety, and prevention, (6) wider impact of the project, and (7) support the need for a bespoke 16- to 24-year-old service.

Discussion

The findings suggest a very positive impact of the project on service users, those around them, and potentially the wider community, as well as support the need for projects directed at younger age groups. In terms of service users’ mental health, the overwhelming consensus is that there were significant improvements. Disordered eating and depression were mentioned as having improved, which is significant, as these have been found to particularly affect victims of domestic violence (Anderson & Saunders, 2003, p. 164; Barnes et al., 2024, p. 1610; Barter, 2009, p. 220; Barter & Stanley, 2016, pp. 491–495). Some service users also mentioned taking better care of their physical health and the impact this had on their wellbeing and confidence, indicating that there is a benefit in including a focus on physical health alongside addressing mental health; indeed, this has also been found to be the case for interventions on victims of gender-based violence, who participated in trauma-informed sports programs (Berger et al., 2023, p. 2584; Gammage et al., 2022, n.p.; van Ingen, 2019, p. 116).

Another prominent theme emerging from participants’ interviews was the increased confidence and self-esteem of service users, with words such as “self-worth” and “self-esteem” often mentioned. Service users also reported feeling freer (despite being in supported accommodation, which could be associated with a more regimented lifestyle), happier, more reflective and better able to set boundaries. Importantly, that they were not to blame for the abuse, allowing them to move on and rebuild their lives, to “feel like a person again.” These findings are in line with evidence from similar small-scale interventions provided by specialized NGOs: Coburn and Gormally (2014) and Warwick-Booth and Coan (2022) also found increased well-being by working on service users’ confidence and self-belief, and that working on self-blame, coping strategies, and dealing with emotions were important to allow victims to change their lives. Poor mental health's link with domestic violence, both as a predictor of victimization and as an outcome, has been well established (see Weir et al., 2026), and findings further support the claim that the integration of mental health in approaches to domestic violence at a younger age is important in reducing the harms associated with it (Johnson et al., 2024). Our research supports this and demonstrates that there is the potential for projects such as these to lead to a clear improvement in service users’ quality of life, ability to adapt to circumstances and engage with others around them in a positive way.

Not only did the project help service users’ health and wellbeing, but it also contributed to enhancing their aspirations and resilience. There are numerous references to service users entering, finishing, or thinking of applying to higher education as a result of the project, which is in line with Barter et al.'s (2009, p. 197) suggestion that improving self-confidence should include instilling goals associated with education or career aspirations. Moreover, the lack of financial literacy and economic independence can impact women's ability to escape violence, for example, by making it difficult to find alternative and safe housing (Stulz et al., 2024, p. 16), and employment has been found to be positively associated with levels of resilience of mothers escaping interpersonal violence (Fogarty et al., 2019, n.p.). Indeed, projects that help with self-sufficiency and communication can be effective in supporting women to escape violence and build a better future for themselves (Kiani et al., 2021, pp. 6–7). This is borne out in our data; even though stories of successfully entering the job market are few, denoting that there is still work to be done in this area, service users gained the confidence to start looking for employment or take steps that would enable them to do so, particularly in terms of improving their education by returning or starting school or university degrees.

Also noteworthy is how relationships with family members and own children improved because of the project. Coburn and Gormally (2014) mention improved trust and connections to others as a result of engagement with a similar project, and Warwick-Booth and Coan's (2022) report decreased social isolation as positive outcomes of the projects they assessed. By feeling validated and having a better understanding of unhealthy relationships, our service users were better able to understand and extricate themselves from unhealthy family dynamics, to better “set boundaries” a rekindling of relationships with parents that had become strained, feeling more confident in their parenting skills and able to engage in healthier relationships with peers and new partners.

Education on healthy relationships was key in this dynamic. Service users, staff, and external stakeholders reported improvements in service users’ ability to recognize signs of unhealthy relationships and make changes accordingly, or “operationalize their beliefs” (Davies, 2019, p. 490). As discussed, education and prevention projects have been found to have positive results, increasing self-esteem, developing positive coping strategies, better emotional responses, and feeling more positive (Coburn & Gormally, 2014, p. 658; Safe Lives, 2025c; Warwick-Booth & Coan, 2022; Warwick-Booth & Cross, 2020, p. 14), all outcomes we found in our population of service users. Education can also lead to a decrease in isolation (Coburn & Gormally, 2014, p. 658), resisting gendered expectations of behavior and adopting more positive stances when faced with abusive situations (Davies, 2019, p. 490).

Service users did not express specifically experiencing an increased sense of safety; however, many mentioned having learnt to “spot the signs” or “red flags” associated with coercive and controlling behavior. Evidence indicates that support from IDVAs and mentors did help service users identify the signs of unhealthy relationships and plan for their safety (“(…) If I was ever, like theoretically to get into a situation like that again, I know the sort of support I’ve got in place”), indicating positive results in this area. As such, the lack of explicit mention of feeling safer may be because safety measures had already taken place and, therefore, at the time of the interviews, safety was not something that was particularly pressing for them. Regardless, working more clearly on safety is another learning point arising from service users’ responses, especially as, part of a trauma-informed approach is to prioritize the “physical, psychological and emotional safety in service users” (HM Government, 2022b).

Moreover, some service users revealed becoming hyper-aware of signs of potential abusive relationships (“I’m always going to see a red flag”), and this impacting their ability to establish new relationships (“I just shut down”), indicating that there is still work to be done in this area and the length of the intervention might need to be rethought to accommodate a more robust exit strategy from the project. Leaving an abusive relationship is, in itself, a risk factor for adult women, and Barter et al. (2009) tell us of the enduring nature of violence among young populations, often due to the close proximity of those involved (for example, attending the same school) and lack of appropriate help-seeking behavior, making effective interventions in this remit important at an earlier stage.

It was also evident that the project indirectly affected positively others, such as service users’ immediate family (e.g., their children as a result of the education of mothers on health, identifying signs of unhealthy relationships and financial planning), and others in the community (e.g., with service users wanting to go on to support their friends, other victims or the public in relation to domestic violence). This is also encouraging in light of literature on the role of peers in supplementing services supporting victims of trauma and interpersonal violence (Cody et al., 2023; Thomson et al., 2026), and those experiencing mental ill health (Solomon et al., 2005). Care needs, however, to inform this approach due to the potential negative consequences for the health and well-being of those providing the support themselves (Gregory et al., 2017), as well as the challenges to their roles and credibility presented by the increased professionalization of service delivery in the field of interpersonal violence (Osborn et al., 2024).

External stakeholders also predicted a lessening of the use of other support services as a result of the improvements in the health and lives of service users and their children, and their ability to become more self-sufficient. The data received from the service provider does not include onward referrals, and stakeholders are speculating on the project's broader impact, based on their observations and experiences with service users (“(…) all those agencies that might have to get involved in the future might not have to as much because they've got that intervention”). However, if true, this can be particularly important in lessening the high social and economic costs of domestic violence (Domestic Abuse Commissioner, 2024, n.p.; HM Government, 2023, p. 3; Oliver et al., 2019, p. 5).

There was also overwhelming support for the existence of a bespoke service for younger service users. Although there was some concern from the staff interviewed regarding where the service sits organizationally and which resources to access (child or adult), there was a sense among staff and external stakeholders that this is a particularly vulnerable population, needing to be supported in a way that considers their circumstances. As reasons for this, staff mentioned inexperience with relationships and the risks associated with them, and external stakeholders mentioned the high levels of referrals they received from victims within this age group. Finally, some service users mentioned that one of the strong points of the project was that they felt comfortable among a population close to their age group, making participation in the outputs of the project less intimidating. There were, however, service users who felt the age bracket alienating and arbitrary; some felt too old for their group, for example, because they were at the top of the group's age bracket, felt less at ease and that they had less in common with those around them. The age of service users and staff is, therefore, an important aspect of strategies to address domestic violence, in assessing younger populations’ specific needs and identifying the best forms of engaging with them.

Conclusion

There is strong evidence that the project had an overwhelming positive impact on service users and beyond the individuals directly exposed to it. The project was highly valued by all interviewed, and there are numerous references to improved confidence, self-esteem, and the ability to identify signs of unhealthy relationships; there are also reported improvements in physical activity, mental health and relationships with peers, family members, and intimate partners. The wider impact of the program is particularly noteworthy, considering the estimated societal impact of domestic violence, in the United Kingdom alone being in the region of £78 billion in 2022/2023 (on average and adjusted for inflation) according to a Home Office estimate (HM Government, 2023, p. 3) or £85 billion per year, according to the Domestic Abuse Commissioner (2024, n.p.).

This project supports the need for further interventions that not only include an educational aspect but are multidimensional, as is best practice with adult victims (e.g., Ellsberg et al., 2015, p. 1555; Hester & Westmarland, 2005, p. 91). Continued assessment and reflection of local small-scale, specialized projects delivered by specialist organizations is also important, in order to learn from “local innovation” (National Audit Office, 2025). However, to further enhance the body of knowledge on such interventions, it would be useful to understand their long-term impact on service users and the community, for example, whether they had returned to their abusers or entered other abusive relationships, found employment, and housing.

The findings also support the value of NGO-led projects to support victims of violence. There are, however, concerns that relying on NGOs to provide these services can be fraught with difficulties, in that lack of predictable, long-term funding can affect the well-being of staff (Gunby et al., 2024, n.p.) and endanger the continuity of projects (Bradbury-Jones et al., 2025, p. 78; Damery et al., 2024, p. 4, 6; Gunby et al., 2024, n.p.). The Domestic Abuse Commissioner (2025a) has warned about the difficulties of meeting governmental targets on VAWG if adequate funding is not in place, including specifically in relation to children's services. The project we evaluated has now reached the end of its cycle. New funding needs to be in place for it to continue, without which numerous young people will be left without bespoke support in situations of domestic violence. The early approach in the United Kingdom to addressing domestic violence among younger populations was piecemeal and noted to be behind that of the United States, Canada, and Australia (see James-Hanman, 1999, p. 254). However, evidence shows that children aged 13 can already experience relationship domestic violence (Fox et al., 2014), indicating a need, not only to increase the number of these projects, but also to contemplate lowering the age of interventions even further. Considering the overwhelmingly positive impact of the project on the individuals who engaged with it and beyond, there is also a case for making funding more predictable and sustained for these types of projects.