COVID-19 Vaccination and the Orang Asli: A Critical Discourse Analysis of a Malaysian Government-Owned News Agency

Abstract

The long history of mistreatment faced by the Orang Asli (Indigenous Peoples of Peninsular Malaysia) raises concerns about how state institutions, including the media, shape public perceptions of the Orang Asli, particularly during health crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the media’s role in reproducing social power and reinforcing dominant narratives, this study employs critical discourse analysis (CDA) to investigate how the Orang Asli were represented in COVID-19 vaccination-related coverage. Sixteen news articles by BERNAMA (Malaysian National News Agency), a government-owned news agency, were analysed. The findings revealed discourses of positive framing of officials in contrast to the Orang Asli, a focus on the Orang Asli’s behaviour over social determinants of health, and the strong community-centric values held by them. The findings call for addressing systemic barriers to their health. In addition, a review of cultural sensitivity is warranted to ensure future engagement involving the Orang Asli that is based on respect.

Keywords

COVID-19 critical discourse analysis Indigenous health Malaysia Orang Asli vaccine

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abdullah

S. M.

(2021, January 18). JAKOA: COVID-19 cases involving Orang Asli under control. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2021/01/658369/jakoa-covid-19-cases-involving-orang-asli-under-control

Abdul Rahim

. (2021, August 9). Perak JKN intensifies Orang Asli vaccination outreach programme. BERNAMA. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1990870

Ahmed

S. K.

(2025). Sample size for saturation in qualitative research: Debates, definitions, and strategies. Journal of Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health, 5(1), 100171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glmedi.2024.100171

Alejandro

Laurence

Maertens

(2023). Discourse analysis. In Badache

Kimber

Maertens

(Eds.), Introduction to international organization research methods (pp. 162–170). The University of Michigan Press.

Bacchi

(2009). Analysing policy: What’s the problem represented to be? Pearson Higher Education.

Baharun

Ismail

(2022). Between us and them: Examining the Indigenous people of Malaysia as represented in the mainstream news media. Al-Azkiyaa - International Journal of Language and Education, 1(1), 22–34. https://doi.org/10.33102/alazkiyaa.v1i1.6

Barnabe

(2021). Towards attainment of Indigenous health through empowerment: Resetting health systems, services and provider approaches. BMJ Global Health, 6, Article e004052. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004052

Barranco

Wisler

(1999). Validity and systematicity of newspaper data in event analysis. European Sociological Review, 15(3), 301–322. https://www-jstor-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/522733

Basri

N. B.

(2021, September 30). Orang Asli ready for endemic COVID-19 phase. BERNAMA. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2008708

10.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021a, June 9). Tok Batin best example to convince Orang Asli community about vaccination. https://bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1970360

11.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021b, June 12). COVID: Pregnant Orang Asli women among vaccine recipients. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1971286

12.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021c, June 14). Muar mobile PPV to continue to Orang Asli, FELDA settlements. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1971676

13.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021d, June 19). More Orang Asli want to be vaccinated now - KPLB. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1973700

14.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021e, June 20). Health workers, JAKOA reps talk Orang Asli into getting vaccine. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1973976

15.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021f, June 20). Lubuk Legong Orang Asli community realises importance of being vaccinated. https://bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1973841

16.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021g, July 5). Orang Asli communities take advantage of mobile centres to get vaccinated. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1979352

17.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021h, July 6). Tok Batin convinces Orang Asli to get vaccinated. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1979605

18.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021i, July 7). Bukit Payung’s oldest Orang Asli agrees to get COVID-19 vaccine after a week of persuasion. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1979812

19.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021j, July 11). Orang Asli leaders to lead as example in promoting vaccination. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1981203

20.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021k, August 14). Despite initial rejection, Orang Asli community responds well to vaccination programme. https://bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1992725

21.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021l, September 25). 327 Orang Asli in Kampung Sungai Berua, Terengganu receive COVID-19 vaccine. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2007057

22.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (2021m, December 4). Orang Asli in Muadzam Shah get COVID-19 booster dose, an initiative by JPVT. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2030095

23.

BERNAMA [Malaysian National News Agency]. (n.d.). Rate sheet. https://blis.bernama.com/index.php?mod=page&opt=ratesheet

24.

Bourien

(1865). On the wild tribes of the interior of the Malay Peninsula. Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, 3, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/3014157

25.

Capper

Ford

Kelly

(2023). Has the pandemic resulted in a renewed and improved focus on heath inequalities in England? A discourse analysis of the framing of health inequalities in national policy. Public Health in Practice (Oxford, England), 5, 100382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2023.100382

26.

Carrington

(2015). Advancing independent journalism while building a modern news business: The case of Malaysiakini. Center for International Media Assistance, National Endowment for Democracy. https://www.cima.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/CIMA-Advancing-Independent-Journalism-While-Building-a-Modern-News-Business-The-Case-of-Malaysiakini.pdf

27.

Cascini

Pantovic

Al-Ajlouni

Y. A.

Failla

Puleo

Melnyk

Lontano

Ricciardi

(2022). Social media and attitudes towards a COVID-19 vaccination: A systematic review of the literature. eClinicalMedicine, 48, 101454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101454

28.

Chua

R. Y.

Kadirvelu

Yasin

Choudhry

F. R.

Park

M. S.

(2019). The cultural, family and community factors for resilience in Southeast Asian Indigenous communities: A systematic review. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(7), 1750–1771. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22224

29.

Chua

R. Y.

Kadirvelu

Yasin

Park

M. S.-A.

(2021). An exploratory model of family resilience processes and functioning: A cultural perspective of the Semai Indigenous communities in Perak, Malaysia. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(6), 567–582. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221211028297

30.

Coustasse

Kimble

Maxik

(2021). COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy: A challenge the United States must overcome. The Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 44(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAC.0000000000000360

31.

Denan

Othman

N. A. F.

Abdul Munir

Ab Latiff

D. S.

Zamzuri

N. H.

(2023). Vaccination acceptance among Indigenous community: The moderating role of tribal leader endorsement. Information Management and Business Review, 15(4(SI)I), 352–361. https://doi.org/10.22610/imbr.v15i4(SI)I.3609

32.

Dentan

R. K.

(2008). Overwhelming terror: Love, fear, peace, and violence among the Semai of Malaysia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

33.

Devaraj

(1999, March). Between myth and reality: Why are Orang Asli more prone to illness [Conference presentation]? World Conference of Primary Care Physicians, Kuching, Malaysia. https://aliran.com/archives/monthly/2000/05f.html

34.

Dollah

Jafar

Prayitno Joko

Sakke

Tahir Mapa

Atang

Vun Hung

George

(2022). Perception of youth in East Malaysia (Sabah) towards the Malaysia national COVID-19 immunisation programme (PICK). Journal of Public Health and Development, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.55131/jphd/2022/200116

35.

Economic Planning Unit. (2021). Twelfth Malaysia plan, 2020-2025. Prime Minister’s Department. https://pulse.icdm.com.my/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Twelfth-Plan-Document_compressed-1.pdf

36.

Emmel

(2013). Sampling and choosing cases in qualitative research: A realist approach. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473913882

37.

Evans-Agnew

R. A.

Johnson

Liu

Boutain

D. M.

(2016). Applying critical discourse analysis in health policy research: Case studies in regional, organizational, and global health. Policy, Politics & Nursing Practice, 17(3), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527154416669355

38.

Fairclough

(1989). Language and power. Longman.

39.

Fairclough

(1995). Critical discourse analysis. Longman.

40.

Fairclough

(2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research (Vol. 270). Routledge.

41.

Fairclough

(2012). Critical discourse analysis. In Handford

Gee

J. P.

(Eds.), The Routledge handbook of discourse analysis. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203809068

42.

Fairclough

Wodak

(1997). Critical discourse analysis. In van Dijk

(Ed.), Discourse studies: A multidisciplinary introduction (Vol. 2, pp. 258–284). Sage.

43.

Feltham-King

Macleod

(2016). How content analysis may complement and extend the insights of discourse analysis: An example of research on constructions of abortion in South African newspapers 1978–2005. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406915624575

44.

Galeazzi

Peruzzi

Brugnoli

Delmastro

Zollo

(2024). Unveiling the hidden agenda: Biases in news reporting and consumption. PNAS Nexus, 3(11), pgae474. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae474

45.

Gasper

(2022). ‘Making strange’: Discourse analysis tools for teaching critical development studies. Progress in Development Studies, 22(3), 288–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/14649934221080828

46.

Greenwood

de Leeuw

Lindsay

N. M.

(Eds.). (2018). Determinants of Indigenous peoples’ health in Canada: Beyond the social. Canadian Scholar’s Press.

47.

Griffith

Marani

Monkman

(2021). COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in Canada: Content analysis of tweets using the theoretical domains framework. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(4), e26874. https://doi.org/10.2196/26874

48.

Hall

(1997). The work of representation. In Hall

(Ed.), Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp. 13–74). Sage.

49.

Hammarberg

Kirkman

de Lacey

(2016). Qualitative research methods: When to use them and how to judge them. Human Reproduction, 31(3), 498–501. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev334

50.

Hassan

M. S.

Nordin

(2021). Political participation of Aboriginal people (Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia: Examining the compatibility of the Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954 with UNDRIP standards. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 28(3), 493–513. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/27073639

51.

Ibrahim

Mustaffa

Kee

C. P.

Ahmad

(2011). Images and issues of superpowers: An analysis of international news coverage by the government-owned news agency, BERNAMA in four national dailies in Malaysia. The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation Journal, 16(3), 1–15.

52.

Idrus

Man

Williams-Hunt

Chopil

T. Y.

(2021). Indigenous resilience and the COVID-19 response: A situation report on the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 17(3), 439–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801211038723

53.

Ismail

Baharun

Abdullah

Abd Majid

S. N.

(2020). Power and voices of authority in the media narrative of Malaysian natives: Combining corpus linguistics and discourse analysis approaches. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 26(2), 50–66. https://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2020-2602-04

54.

Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli [Department of Orang Asli Development]. (2023, December). Jadual taburan etnik Orang Asli mengikut negeri [Schedule of Orang Asli ethnic distribution by state]. Kementerian Kemajuan Desa dan Negeri [Ministry of Rural & Regional Development of Malaysia]. https://www.jakoa.gov.my/orang-asli/jadual-taburan-etnik-orang-asli-mengikut-negeri/

55.

Jafar

Dollah

Sakke

Mapa

M. T.

Atang

Joko

E. P.

Sarjono

Zakaria

N. S.

George

Vun Hung

(2024). Public perception toward the Malaysian national COVID-19 immunisation programme (PICK) in the state of Sabah, Malaysia: A cross-sectional survey. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 18, e43. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2024.31

56.

Jamal

Abdul Manan

(2016). An ideological construction of the Indigenous community: The Orang Asli as portrayed in The Star newspaper. KEMANUSIAAN the Asian Journal of Humanities, 23, 39–62. https://doi.org/10.21315/kajh2016.23.s2.3

57.

Jamal

Naghmeh-Abbaspour

(2020). Non-recognition of the Indigenous community in Malaysian media: Perspectives from the Orang Asli and stakeholders. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 28(S2), 53–70.

58.

Janks

(1997). Critical discourse analysis as a research tool. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 18(3), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/0159630970180302

59.

Jungherr

Posegga

(2019). Discursive power in contemporary media systems: A comparative framework. The International Journal of Press/politics, 24(4), 404–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219841543

60.

Khalid

(2021, September 8). Trends in COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy amongst Indigenous peoples in Peninsular Malaysia. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/malaysia/publications/trends-covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy-amongst-indigenous-peoples-peninsular-malaysia

61.

Khoo

C. M. J.

Dea

E. Z. Q.

Law

L. Y.

Wong

S. S. T.

K. Y.

Bakhtiar

(2024). Acceptability of COVID-19 booster vaccine in Malaysia: A cross-sectional study. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 8421. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59195-0

62.

Khor

G. L.

Shariff

Z. M.

(2019). Do not neglect the Indigenous peoples when reporting health and nutrition issues of the socio-economically disadvantaged populations in Malaysia. BMC Public Health, 19(1685). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-8055-8

63.

Kiyimba

Lester

J. N.

O’Reilly

(2018). Utilising media and text-based sources. In Using naturally occurring data in qualitative health research: A practical guide (pp. 159–178). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94839-3_7

64.

Lang

Alejandro

(2024). Dehumanized in death: Representations of murdered women in American true crime podcasts. International Journal of Communication, 18(2024), 2066–2086.

65.

Lazarus

J. V.

Ratzan

S. C.

Palayew

Gostin

L. O.

Larson

H. J.

Rabin

Kimball

El-Mohandes

(2021). A global survey of potential acceptance of a COVID-19 vaccine. Nature Medicine, 27(2), 225–228. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-1124-9

66.

Lefebvre

Glanville

Briscoe

Littlewood

Marshall

Metzendorf

M.-I.

Noel-Storr

Rader

Shokraneh

Thomas

Wieland

L. S.

(2021). Technical supplement to chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies. In Higgins

J. P. T.

Thomas

Chandler

Cumpston

M. S.

Page

M. J.

Welch

V. A.

(Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Cochrane. www.training.cochrane.org/handbook

67.

(2022). How to tackle variations in elite interviews: Access, strategies, and power dynamics. Qualitative Research, 22(6), 846–861. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794121994475

68.

Looi

S. C.

(2016, December 24). NGO: Orang Asli alcoholism could lead to drug use. Free Malaysia Today. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2016/12/24/ngo-orang-asli-alcoholism-could-lead-to-drug-use/

69.

LSE Liberated Zone. (2024). A statement of Palestine. https://lseliberatedzone.github.io/document/Dissertation-Statement.pdf

70.

Lukes

(2005). Power: A radical view (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.

71.

Lupton

(1992). Discourse analysis: A new methodology for understanding the ideologies of health and illness. Australian Journal of Public Health, 16(2), 145–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-6405.1992.tb00043.x

72.

MacDonald

N. E.

, & SAGE Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy. (2015). Vaccine hesitancy: Definition, scope and determinants. Vaccine, 33(34), 4161–4164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.036

73.

Madran

Kayı

İ.

Beşer

Ergönül

. (2024). The COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among healthcare workers: An exploration of hesitancy reasons and suggestions to improve vaccination rates. Infectious Diseases & Clinical Microbiology, 6(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.36519/idcm.2024.375

74.

Mahmud

M. H.

Baharudin

U. M.

Md Isa

(2022). Diseases among Orang Asli community in Malaysia: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 22, Article 2090. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14449-2

75.

Masron

Masami

Ismail

(2013). Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia: Population, spatial distribution and socio-economic condition. Journal of Ritsumeikan Social Sciences and Humanities, 6, 75–115. https://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/hss/book/pdf/vol06_07.pdf

76.

Mat Arif

. (2022, July 16). The first Orang Asli Health Survey kicks off. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2022/07/813855/first-orang-asli-health-survey-kicks-nsttv

77.

Md Wazilah

A. N

. (2021, June 23). Pharmacists go through unforgettable experience to vaccinate Orang Asli. BERNAMA. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1975031

78.

Ministry of Communications and Multimedia Malaysia. (2021, May 27). Don’t believe fake news about COVID-19 vaccines. https://www.komunikasi.gov.my/awam/berita/18938-don-t-believe-fake-news-about-covid-19-vaccines

79.

Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2020, March 14). Press statement. Updates on the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation in Malaysia. https://www.moh.gov.my/en/media-kkm/media-statement-archive/2020/press-statement-covid-19-by-ministry-of-health-malaysia-140320

80.

Mustafa

K. A.

(1994). The Malaysian press and representation of minority groups. Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 9(2), 200–212. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/41056885

81.

Nagata

Dallos

(2001). The Orang Asli of West Malaysia: An update. Moussons - Recherche en sciences humaines sur l’Asie du Sud-Est, 4, 97–112. https://doi.org/10.4000/moussons.3468

82.

National Human Rights Commission of Malaysia. (2013). Report of the national inquiry into the land rights of Indigenous Peoples. https://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2013/07/suhakam-enquiry-full-text2013.pdf

83.

National Human Rights Commission of Malaysia. (n.d.). Indigenous peoples. https://suhakam.org.my/ms/portfolio/indigenous-peoples/

84.

Nicholas

(2000). The Orang Asli and the contest for resources: Indigenous politics, development and identity in peninsular Malaysia. Center for Orang Asli Concerns and International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.

85.

Nicholas

(2021a, August 21). Letting the guard down, Orang Asli see spike in COVID cases and deaths, an update on the COVID-19 situation among the Orang Asli. Center for Orang Asli Concerns. https://www.facebook.com/centerfororangasliconcerns/posts/4350350981670557/

86.

Nicholas

(2021b). Looking back and looking forward: Orang Asli self-governance and democracy. Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact & Center for Orang Asli Concerns. https://aippnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Looking-Back.Looking-Forward-copressed-by-Fuji-web.pdf

87.

Nicholas

(2022). Indigenous peoples in Malaysia. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. https://www.iwgia.org/en/malaysia/4653-iw-2022-malaysia.html#_edn26

88.

Nicholas

Baer

(2009). Health care for the Orang Asli: Consequences of paternalism and non-recognition. In Chee

H. L.

Barraclough

(Eds.), Health care in Malaysia: The dynamics of provision, financing and access (pp. 119–136). Routledge.

89.

Nicholas

Engi

Teh

Y. P.

(2010). The Orang Asli and the UNDRIP: From rhetoric to recognition. Center for Orang Asli Concerns. https://www.coac.org.my/dashboard/modules/cms/cms~file/cd7e2e9f70ed356a25bee267a3e2727f.pdf

90.

Nobuta

(2008). Living on the periphery: Development and Islamization among the Orang Asli. Trans Pacific Press.

91.

Nungsari

Chuah

H. Y.

Fong

Pillai

(2022). Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on vulnerable populations in Malaysia through an ethical lens: A study of non-state actors involved in aid distribution. Wellcome Open Research, 6, 263. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17239.2

92.

O’Keefe

V. M.

Fish

Maudrie

T. L.

Hunter

A. M.

Tai Rakena

H. G.

Ullrich

J. S.

Clifford

Crawford

Brockie

Walls

Haroz

E. E.

Cwik

Whitesell

N. R.

Barlow

(2022). Centering Indigenous knowledges and worldviews: Applying the Indigenist ecological systems model to youth mental health and wellness research and programs. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6271. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106271

93.

Parti Sosialis Malaysia [Socialist Party of Malaysia]. (2022, May). Orang Asli. https://partisosialis.org/orang-asli/

94.

Patton

M. Q.

(2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage.

95.

Paul

Steptoe

Fancourt

(2021). Attitudes towards vaccines and intention to vaccinate against COVID-19: Implications for public health communications. The Lancet Regional Health. Europe, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2020.100012

96.

Qunaibi

Basheti

Soudy

Sultan

(2021). Hesitancy of Arab healthcare workers towards COVID-19 vaccination: A large-scale multinational study. Vaccines, 9(5), 446. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050446

97.

Reilly

R. E.

Cincotta

Doyle

Firebrace

B. R.

Cargo

van den Tol

Morgan-Bulled

Rowley

K. G.

, & the Heart Health Project Steering Committee. (2011). A pilot study of Aboriginal health promotion from an ecological perspective. BMC Public Health, 11(749). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-749

98.

Rose

(2022). Visual methodologies: An introduction to researching with visual materials. Sage.

99.

Salman

(2010). ICT, the new media (internet) and development: Malaysian experience. The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation Journal, 15(1), 5.

100.

Shepherd

(2024). Masking the critic: A critical discourse analysis of newspaper editorials. In Durgasingh

Selvon-Ramkissoon

(Eds.), Caribbean discourses (pp. 131–176). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45047-1_6

101.

Tan

C. E.

Lau

S. P.

Wong

S. M.

Bala

(2020, December 1–3). Innovative use of TPOA telecentres for COVID-19 awareness among the Orang Asli communities [Conference presentation]. 2020 IEEE 8th R10 Humanitarian Technology Conference (R10-HTC), Kuching, Malaysia. https://doi.org/10.1109/R10-HTC49770.2020.9357028

102.

Taylor

(2013). What is discourse analysis? Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472545213

103.

Teo

(2021). A comparative analysis of Chinese and American newspaper reports on China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Journalism Practice, 17(6), 1268–1287. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2021.1981149

104.

Thong

J. J.

Ting

R. S.

Takeuchi

Jobson

Phipps

M. E.

(2025). A qualitative study exploring the epistemology of suffering within a Malaysian Indigenous tribe. Transcultural Psychiatry, 62, 305–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615231225158

105.

Troiano

Nardi

(2021). Vaccine hesitancy in the era of COVID-19. Public Health, 194, 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2021.02.025

106.

van Dijk

T. A

. (1995). Power and the news media. In Paletz

(Ed.), Political communication in action (pp. 9–36). Hampton Press.

107.

van Dijk

T. A

. (2001). Critical discourse analysis. In Tannen

Schiffrin

Hamilton

(Eds.), Handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 352–371). Blackwell.

108.

Vardavas

Nikitara

Aslanoglou

Lagou

Marou

Phalkey

Leonardi-Bee

Fernandez

Vivilaki

Kamekis

Symvoulakis

Noori

Wuerz

Suk

J. E.

Deogan

(2023). Social determinants of health and vaccine uptake during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine Reports, 35, 102319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102319

109.

von Brömssen

Roxberg

Å.

Werkander Harstäde

. (2024). Space and place for health and care–nationalist discourses in Swedish daily press during the first year of COVID-19. Heliyon, 10(7), e27858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27858

110.

Wallace

A. R.

(1865). On the varieties of man in the Malay Archipelago (3rd volume). Facsimile Publisher.

111.

Wallace

I. J.

Lea

A. J.

Lim

Y. A. L.

Chow

S. K. W.

Mohd Sayed

Ngui

Shaffee

M. T.

K.-S.

Nicholas

Venkataraman

V. V.

Kraft

T. S.

(2022). Orang Asli health and lifeways project (OA HeLP): A cross-sectional cohort study protocol. BMJ Open, 12(9), Article e058660. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058660

112.

Wodak

(2002). Aspects of critical discourse analysis. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Linguistik, 36, 5–31.

113.

Wong

K. C.

Jamal

(2023a). Intertextual representation of the Orang Asli in the Malaysian online news media: A critical discourse analysis. Journal of Language, Literacy and Translation, 6(2), 242–257. https://doi.org/10.36777/ijollt2023.6.2.090

114.

Wong

K. C.

Jamal

(2023b). The Orang Asli in Malaysian media: An approach from transitivity perspective. Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 6(2), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.26666/rmp.jssh.2023.2.3

115.

Wong

Y. S.

Allotey

Reidpath

D. D.

(2014). Health care as commons: An Indigenous approach to universal health coverage. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 5(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2014.5.3.1

116.

Wong

Y. S.

Allotey

Reidpath

D. D.

(2019). Why we run when the doctor comes: Orang Asli responses to health systems in transition in Malaysia. Critical Public Health, 29(2), 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1438588

117.

Wook

Nordin

Hassan

M. S.

(2022). The rights of Indigenous people in Malaysia: The United Nations Declaration on The Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the law in Malaysia. Human Rights Commission of Malaysia. https://suhakam.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/UNDRIP.pdf

118.

World Bank. (n.d.). Indigenous peoples. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/indigenouspeoples

119.

World Health Organization. (2021, December 21). Reaching the unreached: COVID-19 vaccination for one of Malaysia’s Indigenous tribes. https://www.who.int/malaysia/news/feature-stories/detail/reaching-the-unreached-covid-19-vaccination-for-one-of-malaysia-s-indigenous-tribes

120.

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Social determinants of health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health

121.

Yazdannik

Yousefy

Mohammadi

(2017). Discourse analysis: A useful methodology for health-care system researches. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 6, 111. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_124_15

122.

Zheng

(2022). A critical discourse analysis of different news reports on the same event: Illustrated with examples from China Daily and The Guardian. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 10, 348–363. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2022.1011023

123.

Yusoff

N. H.

Sarifin

M. R.

(2022). Malaysians perceptions to the national COVID-19 immunization program. Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine, 22(3), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.22/no.3/art.1369

124.

Zamawe

F. C.

(2015). The implication of using NVivo software in qualitative data analysis: Evidence-based reflections. Malawi Medical Journal: The Journal of Medical Association of Malawi, 27(1), 13–15. https://doi.org/10.4314/mmj.v27i1.4

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB