Evaluating the functional design of temple enclosures for communal practices

Abstract

In contemporary times, the design of worship spaces often falls short of meeting the diverse expectations of devotees seeking solace and tranquility. This study presents a critical yet frequently overlooked aspect of temple design-the impact of spatial acoustics on the overall worship experience. Specifically, focus is on the acoustics of the inner sanctum—garbhagriha, and the outer hall—ardhamandapa, which collectively contribute significantly to the ambiance within a temple. Recognizing the need to establish a method for determining the most suitable activities for each temple enclosure, this research conducted a comprehensive study involving two prominent temples in India—the Kashivishweshwar temple and the Siddheshwar temple, built during the seventeenth century. The selected spaces within these temples were categorized based on their acoustic properties and functionality. The categorization aimed to distinguish spaces conducive to musical performances or mass prayers from those best suited for discourses and religious talks. This study aims to assess the acoustic characteristics of temple spaces and determine their suitability for various congregational activities, such as speech-related activities (prayers, religious preachings) and musical performances through in-situ measurements in an unoccupied condition. Objective indicators considered in this work are reverberation time (RT), early decay time (EDT), and clarity of sound (C₈₀ and C₅₀). The findings underscore the pivotal role that spatial acoustics play in shaping the appropriateness of temple enclosures for such congregational activities. By categorizing and analyzing the acoustical characteristics of specific temple spaces, this research contributes valuable insights to inform future temple designs and renovations.

Keywords

temple design spatial acoustics ardhamandapa garbhagriha discourse

Introduction

Traditionally, temples served as not only places of worship but also communal gathering spaces where people engaged in prayers, meditation, and public meetings. The architectural elements crucial to these spaces included an acoustically favorable hall known as the ‘Ardha-Mandapa’ and a reverberant inner sanctum referred to as the ‘Garbha-Griha’.¹ In an era devoid of electronic public address systems, the acoustics of these spaces held paramount importance, enhancing the auditory experience for congregations.

This research focuses on worship spaces as heritage monuments, emphasizing the need for careful consideration during research and analysis. Adopting a “non-destructive testing” approach, the study utilizes bells—integral components of temple structures—as primary sound sources, ensuring the preservation of architectural integrity.² Temples, conceived with the primary intent of providing a peaceful sanctuary for devotees and fostering community gatherings, may not always align with theoretical acoustically ideal parameters. Despite the potential for renovations to bring temple acoustics in line with scientifically designed auditoriums, the research deliberately refrains from alterations to assess the original acoustical characteristics accurately.

Recognizing that not every temple structure is conducive to musical performances or vocal activities, the study explores the acoustic suitability of two temples—Kashivishweshwar Temple and Siddheshwar Temple in the Pune District. Both temples are Hindu temples, dedicated to Lord Shiva. Most of the Hindu temples in this region tend to be built in the Hemādpanti-style architecture.^3–5 Therefore, the findings of this study may be considered equally applicable to majority of the temple spaces in the western parts of India.

The study further intends to explore the acoustic properties of temple spaces, particularly the inner sanctum (garbhagriha) and outer hall (ardhamandapa), and their contribution to the overall worship experience. The study ascertains how can the acoustical characteristics of temple spaces be categorized to distinguish between areas best suited for speech-related activities and those more conducive to musical performances. Also, which of the temple spaces under study are most suitable for speech-related activities, and which are best suited for musical performances based on their acoustic properties. The study, therefore, aims to provide valuable insights into optimizing temple design and renovations to enhance the worship experience for devotees. The study contributes to the field of acoustics by providing detailed, empirical data on the acoustic properties of smaller, less-studied temple environments. This expands the body of knowledge on how different architectural features influence acoustic performance in sacred spaces, offering valuable insights for both researchers and practitioners.

Figures 1 and 2 depict the two temple sites under investigation, showcasing their architectural features. Constructed predominantly from granite⁶ and its composites, both temples utilize this material in the form of blocks or cubes, with dimensions varying between the two structures (Table 1). The utilization of granite blocks contributes to a marginally lower absorption rate but offers superior absorption compared to numerous other construction materials prevalent in the region.^7,8,9

Figure 1.

Temple site at Kashivishweshwar temple.

Figure 2.

Temple site at Siddheshwar temple.

Table 1.

Dimensions of the two temples under consideration.

Location	Length (in meters)	Width (in meters)	Height (in meters)
Kashivishweshwar temple
Mandapa	5.2	5.2	5.2 (excluding dome)
Garbhagriha	2.3	2.6	5.2
Dome (apex)	—	—	10.4 (from base)
Door of Mandapa	—	1.7	1.0
Siddheshwar temple
Mandapa	4.6	3.4	3.4 (excluding dome)
Dome (apex)	—	—	5.6 (from base)
Door	—	1.9	1.1

Figures 3 –6 exhibit the cross-sectional views of the two temples under scrutiny, detailing their respective design characteristics. The dimensions of each temple are outlined below.

Figure 3.

Interior view of Kashivishweshwar temple, showcasing the design elements and the small window on the wall.

Figure 4.

Interior view of Kashivishweshwar temple, showcasing partially the dome and the inner sanctum.

Figure 5.

Interior view of Siddheshwar temple, showcasing the design elements in the inner sanctum.

Figure 6.

Interior view of Kashivishweshwar temple, showcasing the design elements on corners of inner sanctum.

During experimentation, the doors of the mandapas remained closed, preventing the loss of sound through transmission. However, in the case of the Kashivishweshwar temple, the small slits on windows remained open, potentially resulting in minimal sound energy loss. Nevertheless, this loss is deemed negligible compared to the sound energy reflected within the walls from granite surfaces, thereby warranting neglect. Diffraction effects are expected to be minimal. Further, both the temple structures had untreated or rough surfaces on all the interior walls. The absorption coefficients for such surfaces is relatively low, typically ranging from 0.01 to 0.05, for frequencies in the range 125 to 2000 Hz.¹⁰ This absorption coefficient depends on factors like surface finish, density and thickness. The thick granite wall reflected almost 99% of the sound energy incident on its surface.¹¹

Utilizing advanced computer software such as Wavanal, VizIR, and Sigview, the research examines the impulse responses of bell sounds from these temples, providing valuable insights into the acoustical distinctions. Figures 7 and 8 present the impulse responses, showcasing the damping characteristics of sound within these sacred spaces.

Figure 7.

Impulse response of sound from the bell at Kashivishweshwar temple.

Figure 8.

Impulse response of sound from the bell at Siddheshwar temple.

The positioning of bells within a temple becomes a focal point of investigation, with the belief that their placement within the inner sanctum or hall (mandapa) would align with energy centers, contributing to a more resonant and prolonged sound. The research underscores the significance of preserving and understanding the acoustical heritage of temples, shedding light on their unique sonic characteristics and paving the way for informed preservation and future design considerations.

Theory

The acoustic study of temple spaces involves a meticulous examination of how sound energy is distributed and dissipated within these sacred enclosures. To achieve this, a comprehensive set of acoustic parameters is scrutinized, each delineated based on its objective and subjective characteristics. The objective parameters are quantifiable physical measures intricately linked to the architectural features of the enclosure, providing insights into its structural and acoustic design. Conversely, subjective parameters encapsulate the listener’s perception of the acoustic environment, acknowledging the emotive and experiential dimensions of the auditory encounter. It is essential to recognize the inherent interrelation between these two sets of characteristics, as architectural design profoundly influences the subjective auditory experience. Employing advanced computer software, the impulse responses of the temple spaces depicted in Figures 3 and 4 were obtained. These responses, serving as comprehensive representations of space’s reaction to an impulse, were then meticulously analyzed to extract the pertinent acoustic parameters. By amalgamating both objective and subjective facets, this study aims to characterize the nuanced acoustical quality of the temple spaces, shedding light on their unique auditory characteristics and paving the way for informed preservation and enhancement endeavors.

For temples, the absence of pre-defined values for acoustic parameters stems from the inherent diversity in the architectural design of each temple. Beyond the realms of music and speech, temples serve multifaceted purposes, including mass prayers and worship, each necessitating distinct acoustic characteristics. Whether hosting individual prayers, collective meditations, religious discourses (such as Keertana or Pravachana), or musical performances, temples must cater to varied end effects of acoustical responses that benefit priests, artists, and devotees alike. The quality of sounds, as perceived by a listener, hinges on four critical factors: the physical characteristics of the sound source, the relative positioning of the sound source and listener, the architecture of the temple space, and the impact or sensation induced by the perceived sound stimuli. While the first three parameters can be objectively quantified, the fourth factor resides in the realm between Physics and Psychoacoustics.^12–15 This is due to the highly subjective nature of individual opinions about the acoustical quality of the space, influenced by the unique sensation and training of each individual in understanding the nature of sound.

Structure of the Analysis

The analytical framework of this study focuses on measuring key acoustical parameters, including Reverberation Time (RT), Early Decay Time (EDT), and Clarity of sound (C₈₀ and C₅₀), specifically in response to bell sounds within the selected heritage temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. These temples exhibit diverse architectural styles, primarily constructed using stone cut-outs.^16–18 The acoustical parameters under scrutiny offer insights into the propagation of sound energy through space over time. The calculation of these parameters is conducted utilizing advanced computer software, namely Wavanal and VizIR.^19,20 Wavanal is instrumental in determining RT, EDT, and clarity parameters, while VizIR aids in visualizing the acoustical characteristics. Additionally, Sigview software is employed to conduct Fourier transforms of sound waves, revealing the prominence of sound partials in the temple spaces.^21,22

Figures 9 and 10 present the major five amplitudes derived from the bell sounds in both Kashivishweshwar and Siddheshwar temples. Notably, the maximum amplitude of sound in Kashivishweshwar temple is observed around a frequency of 495 Hz, while in Siddheshwar temple, it peaks around 750 Hz. The Wavanal program suggests that these frequencies correspond to “hum” partials—the lower frequencies with an extended duration. The significance of these frequencies lies in their accessibility without requiring specialized acoustical training, enhancing the inclusive auditory experience within the temple spaces.

Figure 9.

Five major peaks from bell sound at Kashivishweshwar Temple.

Figure 10.

Five major peaks from bell sound at Siddheshwar Temple.

Objective Measurements at Temple Sites

To engineer an enclosure tailored for speech or music, such as a temple, the consideration of reverberation time is vital, contingent upon the desired level of reverberation.²³ Sabine’s formula is typically employed to predict the suitable volume of the enclosure based on this parameter. However, in the context of temples, it remains unclear whether acoustical characteristics were considered during the design process. Furthermore, from a subjective standpoint, specifying early decay times (EDT) within a defined range is essential.²⁴ Temples often exhibit significant disparities between EDTs and reverberation times at specific frequencies, raising questions about the causes of such differences in the contemporary design context. In this analysis, we explore the ratio between EDT and RT, deeming it more suitable for comparison purposes.^25,26 The EDT is contingent on the position within the enclosure, introducing variability, while the RT remains relatively stable. Understanding the interplay between these parameters is crucial for enhancing the acoustical design of temple spaces, ensuring an optimal auditory experience for devotees engaging in various activities within these sacred enclosures.

The measurements were taken at distinct locations within each temple, including the main hall, side chambers, courtyard, and entrance gate utilizing a sound pressure level meter (HTC SL-1352), calibrated using G.R.A.S. 42AG Sound Calibrator, Class 1. Each location was chosen to represent a different acoustic environment within the temple complex. These locations precisely encompassed positions at the entrance, beneath the dome, proximate to the entrance of the inner sanctum, and adjacent to both the left and right walls of the hall. Each observation point was situated at approximately one foot from the respective surface.

Additionally, bell sounds were captured using a recording device and subsequently analyzed with appropriate software tools. However, it is noteworthy that the focal point beneath the dome is recognized as the locus where the entirety of energy converges from all directions. Consequently, the observations detailed herein pertain to those specifically obtained at the central position beneath the dome within the hall. This strategic positioning aligns with the customary placement of a devotee engaged in prayer before the deity. Measurements were conducted for a continuous period of 15 min at each location, with a 5-min interval between measurements to allow for equipment setup and calibration.

The findings are presented in terms of the coefficient of variation, calculated as the standard deviation divided by the mean Early Decay Time (EDT) for each temple. This dimensionless ratio, often referred to as the “relative standard deviation” of EDT, provides insights into the variability of EDT within the temple spaces. For Kashivishweshwar Temple, the relative standard deviation is 0.75 (Table 2), while for Siddheshwar Temple, it is 0.94 (Table 3). Despite the observed excessive variation in EDT and its standard deviation in both temples (Figure 11), the relative standard deviation remains small and below 1, signifying a relatively consistent pattern. Notably, in Siddheshwar Temple, the coefficient of variation of EDT is 75%, whereas in Kashivishweshwar Temple, it is 94%. In both cases, the data exhibits a spread around the mean EDT, with Siddheshwar Temple displaying a larger spread. The use of the coefficient of variation facilitates comparison with a maximum spread of 100%, considered as the standard, offering a comprehensive understanding of the distribution of EDT within these temple spaces.

Table 2.

RT, EDT, C50, and C₈₀ vales for bell sound at Kashivishweshwar temple.

Acoustic Parameter	Octave (Hz)					Mean	Standard deviation	Coeff. of variation of EDT
	125	250	500	1000	2000
T30	0.3	0.1	0.2	0.7	3.8
T60	0.5	0.1	0.5	1.3	7.6
EDT	0.5	1.0	0.5	1.3	2.6	1.2	0.9	0.75
EDT: T60	1	10.0	0.9	1.0	0.03	2.6
C50	2.9	−3.6	3.8	0.5	1.2
C80	7.9	1.6	10.6	3	2.2

Table 3.

RT, EDT, C50, and C₈₀ vales for bell sound at Siddheshwar Temple.

	Octave (Hz)					Mean	Standard deviation	Coeff. Of variation of EDT (relative)
Criteria	125	250	500	1000	2000
T30	1.2	1.5	6.3	6.3	1.4
T60	2.4	3.1	12.7	12.7	2.8
EDT	0.8	0.8	10.5	10.5	3.6	5.2	4.9	0.94
EDT: T60	0.3	0.3	0.8	0.8	0.1	0.5
C50	0.2	−2.3	−17.8	−17.8	−11.7
C80	3.1	2.3	−15.8	−15.8	−10.7

Figure 11.

Relative standard deviation of EDT for two temples.

It is noted that in the case of Kashivishweshwar Temple, the relative standard deviation of Early Decay Time (EDT) exhibits an almost linear increase beyond 500 Hz, whereas for Siddheshwar Temple, the corresponding value decreases beyond this frequency (Table 4 and Figure 12).

Table 4.

Relative standard deviation of EDT with octave frequency.

Frequency (Hz)	EDT		Stdev of EDT		Relative Stdev of EDT with frequency
	Kashivishweshwar	Siddheshwar	Kashivishweshwar	Siddheshwar	Kashivishweshwar	Siddheshwar
125	0.5	0.8	0.9	4.9	0.6	0.2
250	1.0	0.8			1.2	0.2
500	0.5	10.5			0.5	2.1
1000	1.3	10.5			1.5	2.0
2000	2.6	3.6			3.0	0.7

Figure 12.

Relative standard deviation of EDT for two temples with frequency.

Differences between EDT and RT values

To interpret the reasons for differences between Early Decay Time (EDT) and Reverberation Time (RT) values, the parameters C₈₀ and C₅₀, representing the early-to-late sound index or the ‘clarity’ of sound, are utilized. While doing so, the study tries to find out how do the parameters early-to-late sound index (C₈₀) and early decay time relative to reverberation time influence the suitability of these temple spaces for different types of congregational activities.

A consistent observation in both temples is the inverse relationship between the early decay time and the early-to-late sound index, indicating that as the early decay time increases, the early-to-late sound index decreases. The C₅₀ values are positive when early sound surpasses reverberated energy, while C₈₀ values, generally negative and defined for enclosures designed for music, highlight the dominance of early sound. Notably, there is a negative correlation between the early-to-late index and the EDT-RT ratio.

For Kashivishweshwar Temple, the reverberation time (60 dB) ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 s for 125to 500 Hz octaves, aligning with data for enclosures intended for speech. However, a drastic change in RT at 2000 Hz suggests that such high-frequency sounds may not be suitable within the temple, potentially leading to increased noise. In contrast, Siddheshwar Temple exhibits RT in the range of 2 to 3 s for 125and 250 Hz sounds, indicating its potential suitability for music performances or mass prayers at these frequencies, while higher frequencies may be less favorable.

In both temples, mean EDT values are shorter than RT, suggesting that strong reflections emanate from large surfaces, notably nearby pillars, rather than the actual temple enclosure. This spatial distribution indicates that early energy is directed more towards the rear side of the temples than the front side. While some “liveliness” is inherent in the temples, this characteristic may be acceptable for musical performances with well-diffused enclosures. In Kashivishweshwar and Siddheshwar Temples, the directionality of first reflections differs, with a larger portion directed towards devotees in the hall rather than those ringing the bell, contributing to a more diffused sound field.

Furthermore, Kashivishweshwar Temple exhibits predominantly positive C₅₀ values, aligning with enclosures meant for speech, while Siddheshwar Temple displays mostly negative C₈₀ values, characteristic of enclosures tailored for musical performances. This divergence in acoustical characteristics sheds light on the unique auditory environments within these temples, reflecting potential architectural considerations and historical societal distinctions.

Prominent Frequencies

To discern the audible frequency spectrum, Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) in the form of “Spectrogram Plots” and 3-D Time Fast Fourier Transforms in “Waterfall Plots” were employed, providing insights into the spectral distributions of the recorded bell sounds in Kashivishweshwar and Siddheshwar Temples—Figures 13 and 14. The observed differences in spectral distributions imply distinct sound perceptions for the two bells. In Kashivishweshwar Temple, the peaks are concentrated near lower frequencies, with partials maintaining their amplitudes over time. Notably, sharp peaks at intermediate frequencies indicate bursts of energy that, although brief, may impact devotees. Conversely, Siddheshwar Temple exhibits highly concentrated peaks in the lower frequency spectrum, yet the partials diminish at a faster rate, suggesting a more rapid dissipation of sound energy. The presented images depict the dispersion of the sound spectrum, emphasizing that the prominence of received energy is contingent upon both the amplitude and duration of sound reception. The integration of sizable amplitude over a significant time interval carries substantial energy, as illustrated in the Time FFTs, underscoring the nuanced interplay between amplitude and time in shaping the perceived auditory experience within these temple spaces.

Figure 13.

Time FFT plot for Kashivishweshwar Temple (Waterfall plot).

Figure 14.

Time FFT plot for Siddheshwar Temple (Waterfall plot).

Final Conclusions

The findings of this study lead to the determination that Kashivishweshwar Temple is better suited for speech-related activities such as prayers or religious preaching, while Siddheshwar Dhom Temple is most apt for musical performances or prayers accompanied by music. The high value of the early-to-late index (C₈₀) may arise from either a substantial level of early sound or a diminished level of late sound, and either scenario can contribute to low values for the early decay time. Conversely, elevated values for the early decay time relative to the reverberation time may be attributed to weak early sound or an amplified level of late sound. Across both worship places, lower frequencies emerge as more prominent, with varying time intervals dictating the propagation of sound energy through space. The decisive factor for assessing the appropriateness of these spaces for speech or musical performances lies in the value of the early-to-late sound index.

The conclusions regarding the suitability of Kashivishweshwar Temple for speech-related activities and Siddheshwar Dhom Temple for musical performances have practical implications for the planning and design of future religious and cultural events in similar spaces. The comprehensive acoustic analysis of these two temples has revealed critical insights into how the spatial acoustics of these ancient structures can significantly influence their suitability for various communal activities. By understanding the specific acoustic characteristics of these temples, designers and architects can optimize the use of these environments for various types of activities, enhancing the overall experience for congregants.

These findings underscore the critical role of acoustics in enhancing the worship experience within temple spaces. By analyzing key parameters such as Reverberation Time (RT), Early Decay Time (EDT), and Clarity (C₈₀ and C₅₀), this research has demonstrated how these metrics contribute to the perceived quality of sound during different activities. For instance, the Kashivishweshwar Temple’s acoustical characteristics, with shorter RT and positive C₅₀ values, make it more conducive to speech-related activities like prayers and religious discourses. The clearer and less reverberant sound in this space helps ensure that spoken words are intelligible, fostering a more intimate and engaging environment for devotees. In contrast, the Siddheshwar Temple, with its longer RT and negative C₈₀ values, is better suited for musical performances. The extended reverberation enhances the richness and depth of musical notes, creating an immersive auditory experience that elevates the emotional and spiritual connection of the participants. This distinction between the acoustic environments of the two temples underscores the importance of tailoring worship spaces to the specific needs of the activities they host.

The study’s findings highlight the profound impact of architectural design on acoustic performance. The differences in RT and EDT between the two temples can be attributed to their distinct architectural features, such as the size and shape of the enclosures, the materials used in construction, and the placement of sound-reflecting surfaces. For instance, the thicker granite walls of the Kashivishweshwar Temple contribute to a more controlled acoustic environment, while the larger, more open spaces in the Siddheshwar Temple allow for greater sound reverberation. These insights are invaluable for architects and designers involved in the construction or renovation of worship spaces. By considering the acoustic properties of materials and the spatial configuration of the structure, they can create environments that are acoustically optimized for the intended use, whether it be for speech, music, or other communal activities.

This study emphasizes the importance of preserving the unique acoustic characteristics of heritage temples. As these structures serve not only as places of worship but also as historical and cultural landmarks, maintaining their original acoustic qualities is crucial for preserving their authenticity and heritage value. The findings suggest that any interventions or renovations should be carried out with a careful consideration of their impact on the temple’s acoustics. For instance, modifications that alter the sound-reflecting properties of surfaces or change the spatial configuration could inadvertently degrade the acoustical experience. Therefore, the research advocates for a non-invasive approach to temple preservation, focusing on maintaining the original acoustic environment while ensuring the structure’s longevity and relevance in contemporary times.

Beyond the specific context of the Kashivishweshwar and Siddheshwar temples, the findings have broader implications for the design of religious and cultural spaces. They provide critical insights for architects and designers involved in the creation and renovation of worship spaces. By considering the acoustic properties of materials and the spatial configuration of the structure, they can design environments that are acoustically optimized for their intended use, whether it be for speech, music, or other communal activities. The study provides a framework for assessing and optimizing the acoustics of such spaces, highlighting the need for a balanced approach that considers both the physical and perceptual aspects of sound. By integrating advanced acoustic analysis techniques, such as impulse response measurements and spectral analysis, designers can create spaces that not only meet the functional requirements of worship and communal activities but also enhance the overall sensory experience of the users.

The two temples undertaken for this study embody important aspects of regional architectural styles and cultural practices. The findings highlight the diversity of Indian temple architecture and its impact on acoustics, thereby enriching the overall discourse on Indian architectural heritage. Future endeavors could explore the temporary use of suitable materials to modify the surface coatings of the temples, aiming to make them conducive to both music and speech. However, any such interventions must be approached with utmost care to preserve the heritage of these temples and avoid compromising the quality of the original construction materials. The discussion includes implications for heritage conservation and the potential for acoustic preservation in other similar historical heritage sites. While retrofit and reconstruction may not be feasible due to heritage regulations, understanding the existing acoustic properties is crucial for informed conservation efforts. Similar acoustic studies are to be conducted on a diverse range of temples across different regions. This would help build a comprehensive database of temple acoustics, facilitating comparative studies and enhancing our understanding of acoustical characteristics in various cultural contexts. Future research could expand on this study by exploring the acoustic properties of a wider range of temple styles and materials, as well as investigating the impact of environmental factors on the acoustic performance of heritage structures. Such studies would deepen our understanding of the dynamic nature of acoustics in worship spaces and inform more effective strategies for their preservation and enhancement.

In conclusion, this study has tried to provide valuable insights into the acoustical characteristics of temple spaces and their implications for communal practices. By highlighting the critical role of acoustics in shaping the worship experience and informing future design and preservation efforts, the research contributes to a deeper appreciation of the interplay between architecture, sound, and spirituality in religious and cultural contexts.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Anirvan Gupta

References

Prasad

Rajavel

(2017) Acoustical studies of worship spaces in hindu temples. In: Proceedings of the 24th international congress on sound and vibration, Vol. 6, pp. 4098–4105, London.

Gupta

An architectural acoustical study of some heritage Indian temples in the states of Maharshtra and Gujarat. Ph.D. Thesis, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune. 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10603/486697

Patil

Hajare

Yadava temples of osmanabad and latur districts. Indian Streams Res J 2016; 6(9): 1–5.

Sohoni

Temple architecture of the Marathas in Maharshtra, Vol. 1. Ph.D. Thesis, De Montfort University, Leicester, 1998.

Parikh

Baghel

(2023) Architectural decoding and analysis of the Krishnabai temple in Mahabaleshwar, India: a comprehensive documentation study. In: 6th international conference of contemporary affairs in architecture and Urbanism, Vol. 6, No .1, Istanbul, Turkey, pp.709–721. DOI: 10.38027/iccaua2023en0139.

de Souza

Santos

Cavalcante

, et al Composite utilizing residues of marble and granite for building popular homes. J Build Eng 2017; 9: 192–197, ISSN 2352-7102. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2017.01.003.

Frascá

Yamamoto

Investigation of test specimen size and shape on absorption mesaurements of granite dimension stone. ASTM Int 2021; 3: 40–53. DOI: 10.1520/STP162820190165.

Wurster

Bauer

Indian vernacular architecture: Wai and Cochin. Perspecta 1959; 5: 37–48. DOI: 10.2307/1566879.

Kaye

Evans

The sound-absorbing properties of some common out-door materials. Proceed Phys Soc 2002; 52(3): 371. DOI: 10.1088/0959-5309/52/3/307.

10.

Fan

Yang

Wang

, et al Experimental study on wave propagation through granite after high-temperature treatment. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2021; 148:104946. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2021.104946.

11.

Temple

(2003) Sound Absorption – Holes in the Ceiling, Rupert Taylor, Suffolk, UK, pp. 131–147.

12.

Fastl

The psychoacoustics of sound quality evaluation. Acta Acust United Acust 1997; 83(5): 754–764.

13.

Fastl

Psychoacoustic basis of sound quality evaluation and sound engineering. In: Proceedings of the 13th international congress on sound and vibration, Vienna, Austria, 2006.

14.

Beranek

LL.

Music, acoustics and architecture. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1992.

15.

Beranek

LL.

Concert and opera enclosures: how they sound. New York: Acoust Soc Amer, 1996.

16.

Thapar

Introduction to Indian architecture. Periplus Editions (HK) Limited. 2004, P.144.

17.

Michell

The Hindu temple: an introduction to its meaning and forms, Chapter 1. University of Chicago Press, 1998.

18.

NCERT. Temple Architecture and Sculpture, An Introduction to Indian Art Part – I, Chapter 6, New Delhi, 2024, pp. 69–102.

19.

Hibberts

(n.d.). Wavanal software. Retrieved from http://www.hibberts.co.uk/wavanal.htm#wavanal

20.

Sonium . (n.d.). Acoustique architecturale. Retrieved from https://www.sonium.fr/acoustique-architecturale

21.

Sigview . (n.d.). Sigview software. Retrieved from https://www.sigview.com

22.

Gupta

Raybagkar

Acoustical analysis of bell sounds from two temples in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Acoust Bullet 2018; 43(2): 42–50.

23.

Shroeder

MR.

New method of measuring reverberation time. J Acoust Soc Amer 1982; 71: 619–629.

24.

Jordan

VL.

Acoustical criteria for auditoriums and their relation to model techniques. J Acoust Soc Amer 1970; 47: 408–412.

25.

Gupta

Chaudhari

Raybagkar

VH.

Analysis of acoustical characteristics for understanding of sound quality and acoustic environment inside temples. Int J Eng Technol Sci Res 2018; 5(3): 1908–1920.

26.

Barron

Interpretation of early decay times in concert auditoria. Acta Acus United Acust 1995; 81(4): 320–331.