The experience of teaching using a game based approach: Teachers as learners,collaborators and catalysts

Game based approaches

In light of its use as an umbrella term for a range of student-centred approaches used to teach games, it is important to offer a definition of what constitutes a GBA. The term GBA has been adopted by a number of scholars and practitioners (for example Harvey and Light, 2015; Light et al., 2014; Serra-Olivares et al., 2015) to describe the range of pedagogical approaches that ‘focus on the game instead of decontextualized techniques or skills to locate learning within modified games or game-like activities and that emphasise questioning to stimulate thinking and interaction’ (Light and Mooney, 2014: 2). GBAs have also been described as an alternative to the more ‘traditional’ teacher-centred approaches historically synonymous with games teaching in physical education and sports settings (Light, 2002). Jarrett and Harvey (2016: 96) stated that the aim of using GBAs is to ‘promote learner involvement through playing modified/conditioned games’. Forrest (2015: 146) offered the following account of GBA lesson foci:

in a [GBA] lesson, it is theorised that knowledge construction occurs through active student involvement in games and game play that pose problems, questioning and discussion, and reflection on play and progressions on the games to develop this. Through this, students continually construct and reconstruct knowledge about the problems presented.

The nature of experience

In focusing on the exploration of secondary physical education teachers’ personal experiences of using a GBA, the authors recognise the importance of presenting their understanding of experience and its relationship with education. For both authors, Dewey’s (1938) exploration of the nature and value of experience as an educative tool has had a significant influence on how the relationship between experience and education is viewed. Indeed, Dewey states (1938: 25), ‘amid all uncertainties there is one specific frame of reference: namely, the organic connection between education and personal experience’. His seminal texts of Experience and Education (1938) and The School and Society (1899) explore the contrasts between traditional and progressive education, with an emphasis on promoting meaningful education based on quality experiences. His view was that traditional education, although laden with experiences, was largely of the ‘wrong kind’ and ‘defective from the standpoint of connection with further experience’ (Dewey, 1938: 26–27). As teachers, we have a responsibility to develop our pupils and help them grow as learners, individuals and as a community. Dewey (1938) further contends that we do this through the shaping of student experience, which also requires recognition of the influence of teachers’ own experiences in their journeys to becoming professional educators.

The experience of teaching

Teachers’ journeys have all been influenced by their previous experiences. As East (2014: 686) suggests, the practice of being a teacher and aligning with institutional, peer, pupil and curriculum expectations is sometimes ‘challenged by teachers’ existing beliefs and practices, which are often influenced by their own experiences as pupils in school’. Therefore, the deeper we are into our teaching journeys, the more likely our use of innovations in the classroom might be limited by our experiences (East, 2014). Conversely, our abilities and desires as teachers to seek opportunities to share our experiences and beliefs can act as safeguards to help avoid habitualised methods of instruction, and pave the way for engagement in supportive communities of practice and opportunities to experiment with innovative and student-centred forms of instruction like the use of GBAs (Nash, 2009; Penney, 2008; Pill et al., 2012; Rufo, 2014). Thus, the investigation of the relationship between experience and education is an important endeavour for the improvement of teacher education practices, with this article focusing specifically on the exploration of teachers’ experiences of using GBAs to teach games.

Phenomenography

Phenomenography is commonly referred to as the study of how people experience a given phenomenon (widely defined as an observable occurrence or occasion), with it being commonly used in educational contexts to explore subjective experiences of teaching (Linder and Marshall, 2003; Marton and Booth, 1997). Dahlin (2007) suggests that phenomenography can best be understood as a research framework designed to highlight and describe variations in experience or variations in the ways people see a phenomenon, and that ‘by learning about how the world appears to others, we will learn what the world is like, and what the world could be like’ (Marton and Booth, 1997: 13).

Phenomenographers accept that a group of people hold a variety of qualitatively finite conceptions. This means that a range of different ideas and meanings evident across a group are identified in order to develop collective meaning on the variation of meaning (Loughland et al., 2002). In phenomenography, individual voices are only heard as a means of listening to a collective. Thus, it is the description and analysis of experience at a collective level that is the focus, ‘with the aim to find all the qualitatively different ways of seeing the phenomenon’ (Thune and Eckerdale, 2009: 340).

Variation theory

With the intention of phenomenographic research being to document the range of conceptions held of a specific phenomenon, associated learning was seen as a move from one conception to another based on an individual’s capacities for experience (Dahlin, 2007). Yet, prior to 1997, an absence of theory existed as to how learning was made possible. Thus, the variation theory of learning developed by Marton and Booth (1997) quickly become popular as a theory to support learning (Hella and Wright, 2009; Lam, 2013). Central to the theory is the importance of the experience of variation insofar as to discern a specific element of an experience we have to experience variation in that element (Lam, 2013). Bowden and Marton (1998) put it simply by suggesting that without variation there is no discernment and therefore no learning. Discernment is thus the necessary condition of learning (Marton and Pang, 2006), with the capacity to discern critical aspects of an object (i.e. those aspects of an experience ‘considered critical for experiencing the object of learning in a powerful way’ (Nyberg and Carlgren, 2015: 618)) of significant importance when developing the use of game based teaching practice (e.g. GBAs). In essence, then, this study utilises phenomenography and variation theory to ascertain and then investigate participants’ abilities to discern various elements of a teaching experience, that being their use of GBAs.

Participants

A criterion-based sample of participants (Palinkas et al., 2015) was selected from two different sites: site 1 consisted of in-service physical education teachers from secondary schools in southeast England (n = 6); site 2 consisted of in-service physical education teachers from secondary schools in southeast Australia (n = 6). Thus, a total of 12 participants were selected for this study and, whilst there is no prescriptive sample size associated with a phenomenographic study (Yates et al., 2012), the number of participants selected reflects Trigwell’s (2000) suggestion that 10 to 15 participants are sufficient in phenomenographic research as it offers a reasonable chance of finding variation within meaning.

The distinct site locations (England and Australia) were selected to reflect (a) the growing global interest in and use of GBAs, (b) the breadth of research into GBAs emanating from both sites, and (c) the researchers’ awareness of GBA-related teaching at schools and tertiary institutions in each location. Five schools at each site were identified (based on existing contacts at each school). An initial questionnaire was sent out via email to teachers within each school’s physical education department with the following three options.

I have heard of GBAs but have never used one.

Respondents indicating that I have heard of GBAs but have never used one were not selected as participants for this study. Four respondents indicated I have tried using a GBA in my teaching, but it did not work so I no longer use it and were chosen as participants for the study. Eight respondents indicated I use a GBA in my teaching all the time and were all selected as participants.

Procedure

To facilitate participants’ sharing of deeper responses associated with exploring personal meanings (Loughland et al., 2002), two 40–60-minute interviews were conducted with each participant. Interview one (which included questions such as ‘What is important to you when you are teaching?’) focused on establishing trust between interviewee and interviewer (Jacob and Furgerson, 2012), as well as providing participants with an opportunity to reflect upon and share their perceptions of their journey into teaching. The main focus of interview two (which included questions such as ‘Can you tell me about an occasion when you used a GBA?’ and were scheduled at least a week after interview one) was to engage participants in reliving a past experience of using a GBA. This was completed through use of the elicitation interview technique, which engages both the interviewer and interviewee in the ‘reliving’ of experience through verbalisation of a past and specific situation (Vermersch, 1994). See Jarrett et al. (2014) for a more detailed explanation of the use of the elicitation interview technique.

Data analysis

In accordance with phenomenographic research analysis, material collected from participant interviews formed a pool of meaning pertaining to both them as individuals as well as the collective (Marton and Booth, 1997). Material from the pool was inspected against two contexts: (a) the context of the individual interview and (b) the context of other interview extracts viewed collectively in relation to each other (Åkerlind, 2005, 2008; Marton and Booth, 1997). A range of phenomenographic data analysis guidance was used to help shape the analysis process (e.g. Larsson and Holmstrom, 2007; Sin, 2010; Sjöström and Dahlgren, 2002; Yates et al., 2012), with the object of research being an experience of GBA use. Thus, key extracts and/or utterances relating to GBA-related teaching experiences became the focus for categorisation, with the analysis of transcript data reflecting a helical process of constant return to transcripts (and over time specific utterances) to help build a better understanding of meaning. Initial identification of specific utterances within transcripts was based on recognition of statements that offered a snapshot of purpose, clarity or justification whilst also summarising an aspect of relived experience. For example, the section of transcript below includes within it a selected utterance identified as offering a summary of relived experience.

I get them to stop to turn behind and have a look at the new playing corridors that have been created and I guess I just want to bring it to the students’ attention then and there um…and I didn’t want it to disrupt different groups down the track if they weren’t aware the area had changed so I wanted to check for understanding and at the same time I’d like them to move on and find a new partner. (Utterance 74 [in italics] as identified within Transcript IB)

Data presentation – composite narrative

Composite narratives, created with extracts from participants’ interviews, are included to highlight aspects of variation and collective meaning held throughout collective experiences of GBA-related teaching. Each composite narrative was constructed from an analysis of utterances (e.g. stories) provided by participants at each site. Each narrative was made up entirely, and only, from utterances contained within transcript data that reflected similar conceptions of awareness. The intended use of such narrative methods was to provide special insights into the complexity of meaning attributed to GBA teaching experience over and above more familiar ways of sharing research findings (Riley and Hawe, 2004). In this instance it is hoped that the use of composite narratives to retell stories of meaning derived from GBA-related teaching can help to develop overall pedagogical practice in physical education as well as perceptions of the field itself.

Limitations

It is important to recognise the limitations of phenomenography with respect to the complex nature of the data being investigated, which for this study was teachers’ experiences of teaching games. To that end, Richardson (1999) provides a range of criticisms, none more damning than his belief that ‘phenomenographers have no basis for characterising other people’s conceptions of the world because they themselves only have access to other people’s verbal accounts’ (66). Yet Marton and Booth (1997: 113) counter such an argument by suggesting that ‘we cannot describe a world that is independent of our verbal, written or acted descriptions or of us as describers’. With the main function of phenomenographic analysis requiring the description and documentation of categories of experience as constituted from data, Saljo (1998) stressed that the identification of these categories was based on researchers’ own constructions and that other researchers might arrive at a different set of categorisations. Thus, although data member checking and use of the study’s co-author as a critical friend (Smith and McGannon, 2017) were used to explore interpretations of data, the analysis of data for this study relied upon the lead author’s value judgements, which can indeed promote variability within categorisation processes and can be influenced by said researcher’s own conceptions of the domain (Marton and Booth, 1997). With an emphasis on subjectivity, description and interpretation, the scope for generalisations to be made through use of a phenomenographic framework is limited. It is not, however, the intention of this research study to generalise findings, only to identify, inquire into and describe human experience across a group of teachers (Loughland et al., 2002). Indeed, the concept of generalisation is not a key aspect of phenomenographic research. It is the transfer or application of understanding to another situation, context, or point in time by the person reviewing the findings that is of greater importance (Sin, 2010). It is also important to note the limited scope of this study in that the views and experiences of school children, who also experienced the teachers’ GBA practices, were not explored.

Categories of conception

The three composite narratives below are made up entirely from utterances contained within the transcript data that reflect a similar conception of awareness – that being the experience of GBA teaching as related to a Learner, a Collaborator or a Catalyst. Each narrative is a storied invitation to help readers engage with the collective awareness and meaning of participants’ experiences of teaching games with a GBA.

GBA teaching experience

This study shows that teachers’ GBA teaching experiences vary considerably, which is demonstrated by the capacity to experience GBA teaching as a Learner, a Collaborator and a Catalyst. Specific GBA teaching experience in relation to each category, however, was similar in different parts of the world, suggesting that the nature of GBA teaching experience had limited site-specific significance. This perspective still recognises the influence of social, cultural and material context on teaching experience, yet the strength of contextual influence varies not in relation to site but in determining teachers’ capacities to experience GBA teaching.

Thus, GBA teaching experience reflects an attitude to teaching (and learning) that has been around since well before the evolution of contemporary GBAs some three decades ago. The manifestation of this attitude, though, varies depending upon teachers’ capacity for GBA teaching experience. For example, a Catalyst is more likely to reflect and seek opportunities to share GBA teaching experience in order to develop teaching practice, whereas a Learner, although open to the concept and philosophy of GBA teaching, is less likely to embrace the potential of curriculum (as offered through the experience of GBA teaching), but instead act more as its delegate (Nebeker, 2002). Collaborators and Catalysts also have a better awareness than Learners of what and how the context of learning can influence teaching experience. Thus, if a range of GBA teaching experiences are being accumulated (i.e. more experiences of the object of learning and awareness of discerned aspects in relation to other discerned aspects) then it is more likely that the experience of GBA teaching will become more effective on a more consistent basis. An understanding of these likely experiences of GBA teaching in turn has implications for teachers and their teaching practice.

Recommendations for teaching practice

To help teachers experience the phenomenon of GBA teaching with a more complex understanding, a range of teacher-focused recommendations from this study’s findings can be made. Firstly, by making teachers aware of each of the categories associated with the experience of GBA teaching, they may begin to consider their own categorisation of experience. This in turn has the potential to bring aspects of GBA teaching practice into view when previously those aspects may have been unnoticed or avoided. Such an exercise in personal reflection relating to GBA teaching experiences and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in general may also make teachers more aware of their own and colleagues’ thinking and practice around teaching. This may also create the impetus to disrupt entrenched practices if appropriate/required.

The highlighting and sharing of experience at a collective level may also help teachers within and across institutions to locate mentors and/or colleagues to support future GBA teaching practice in line with recommendations from Wang and Ha (2012) and Aguiar and Light (2015). The development and administration of professional GBA-related communities of practice is already apparent at an international level (e.g. the TGfU Special Interest Group – http://tgfuinfo.weebly.com/), but the convening of communities at a more local level should also be seen as an important addition to raising the standard of teachers’ PCK. As an extension of this premise, the development of and engagement with such communities in southeast England and southeast Australia is a recommendation for teachers involved in this study.

The experience of variation in the way GBAs are conceptualised is also important for teachers. Such varied conceptualisations make the task of engaging with nuanced literature on GBAs (e.g. nuanced by means of literature focusing on either TGfU, or Game Sense, or other types of GBAs) more accessible and readily available to develop a more complex understanding of GBA teaching experience. Yet resources accessible to teachers that showcase varied conceptualisations of different GBAs are limited. Jarrett and Harvey (2016) offer four separate lesson/session outlines in one article as a means to highlight similarities and differences between TGfU and Game Sense in both teaching and coaching settings, but additional resources for teachers are warranted. The showcasing of effective GBA teaching as experienced by a Catalyst is also recommended as both a hook for teachers considering the use of GBAs as well as teachers with existing experiences of GBA-teaching seeking to develop a more complex understanding of their own GBA practice.