Abstract
This study investigated the effects of growth mindset and self-efficacy on foreign language achievement (FLA) in a sample of 379 intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) while also incorporating the mediation of second language (L2) grit in a structural model. The measurement model was examined using confirmatory factor analysis, and mediation analysis was conducted following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) method to explore the mediating role of L2 grit in the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, and FLA. The results revealed that both L2 grit and English self-efficacy directly predicted FLA. Moreover, the mediation analysis revealed that growth mindset influenced FLA indirectly through the mediating role of L2 grit. These findings suggest that fostering growth mindset and self-efficacy beliefs in language learners could enhance their FLA, and that the development of L2 grit may play a significant role in mediating the relationship between growth mindset and FLA. Implications of these results for language education are discussed, and suggestions for future research are considered.
I Introduction
The role of individual differences in the process of foreign/second language (L2) learning has drawn the attention of second language acquisition (SLA) researchers in the past two decades. The line of research has been mainly inspired by the long-standing quest for ‘the holy grail’ (Dewaele, 2009) or identifying the characteristics of good language learners (Dewaele, 2009; Teimouri et al., 2022). Such characteristics include, but are not limited to, L2 learners’ mindset (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022), grit (Hejazi & Sadoughi, 2022), the use of self-regulatory strategies (Pawlak et al., 2022), positive or negative emotions (Li & Dewaele, 2021; Kruk & Pawlak, 2022), willingness to communicate (L.J. Zhang et al., 2022), and self-efficacy (Bai & Wang, 2023; Young Kyo, 2022).
Although various structural models have sought to elucidate the intricate interplay of these factors and their collective influence on foreign language achievement (FLA) (Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022), our study zooms in on three pivotal variables: growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit. Growth mindset, positing that intelligence is malleable and can be cultivated through practice, is anticipated to exert a positive influence on L2 achievement. Conversely, a fixed mindset, entailing a belief that innate abilities remain immutable irrespective of effort, may impede progress (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022). Additionally, learners’ self-efficacy, encapsulating their perceived competence and belief in their capacity to accomplish specific tasks (Bai & Wang, 2023; Bernacki et al., 2015), wields substantial sway over the diligence and determination they invest in their language learning endeavors. Moreover, emerging research underscores the pivotal role of grit, a construct encapsulating both perseverance of effort (PE) and consistency of interest (CI) towards long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). For Duckworth, grit is such a significant factor that she has claimed that it is an even better predictor of success than intelligence or aptitude (Duckworth, 2013). However, recent studies have cautioned against sweeping claims regarding the impact of grit, highlighting the need for more nuanced examination of the construct (J. Zhang & Zhang, 2023). Nonetheless, evidence suggests that gritty individuals demonstrate superior performance on L2 achievement assessments (Fathi & Hejazi, 2023; Wei et al., 2019), though some studies advocate more judicious interpretation of these results (Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022).
Despite this evolving body of research, empirical consensus regarding these individual difference (ID) factors’ definitive impact on L2 achievement remains elusive (Oxford & Khajavy, 2021). Notably, there is a conspicuous gap in the existing literature pertaining to the joint influence of growth mindset and self-efficacy on L2 achievement, while also accounting for the potential mediating role of L2 grit. Given the emphasis of growth mindset on the adaptability of intelligence and its promotion of viewing failures as opportunities for learning (Khajavy et al., 2021), it stands to reason that this factor may serve as a precursor to L2 grit. Likewise, self-efficacy, revolving around individuals’ self-assessment of their capacity to complete a given task (Bai & Wang, 2023; Bandura, 1997), represents a potential wellspring for students’ perseverance and ardor in the realm of L2 learning, that is, their L2 grit.
Furthermore, while research has individually examined the impacts of growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit on language achievement, a holistic investigation considering their collective influence remains conspicuously absent. Previous research has primarily focused on isolated effects, often overlooking the potential interplay and synergistic effects of these crucial factors in shaping language learning outcomes. This study seeks to fill this gap by adopting a comprehensive approach that integrates growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit into a unified model. By doing so, we aim to provide a thorough understanding of how these variables work in concert, shedding light on the complex dynamics underlying FLA. Additionally, this study places special emphasis on the mediating role of L2 grit, a facet that has received limited attention in previous research endeavors. Through this integrated examination, we aim to contribute a more comprehensive and vivid perspective to the existing body of literature in SLA and individual difference research. Thus, this study seeks to bridge this existing gap by scrutinizing both the direct impact of growth mindset and self-efficacy on students’ FLA, as well as their indirect influence mediated by L2 grit, through the application of structural equation modeling (SEM). With this overarching objective in mind, we address the following research questions:
Research question 1: How do student growth mindset and student self-efficacy affect L2 grit?
Research question 2: What is the relationship between L2 grit and foreign language achievement?
Research question 3: Does L2 grit mediate the relationship between student growth mindset, student self-efficacy and foreign language achievement?
II Literature review
1 Positive psychology in SLA
Taking issue with the overreliance in psychology on the shortcomings and deficiencies in human cognition and behavior, positive psychology (PP) altered this perspective, shifting the focus to the strengths and bright aspects of individuals’ mental lives (Mercer & MacIntyre, 2014). Given this different approach, PP is simply defined as ‘the scientific study of what goes right in life’ (Peterson, 2006, p. 4); hence, it seeks to promote the circumstances that foster and lead to enjoyable and engaging human experiences. Proponents of PP argue that there has been a myriad of research studies on L2 learning anxiety, for instance, while conspicuously little attention has been paid to L2 learning enjoyment or engagement (MacIntyre, 2021). In light of the affective and emotion-laden nature of SLA (MacIntyre et al., 2019), PP was received with a warm welcome in this field (Dewaele et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021). Since the L2 learner is engaged in interpersonal, intercultural, and communicative processes, there is always a concern to ensure the optimum levels of well-being and support in such processes. Therefore, Wang et al. (2021) proposed seven PP factors that are potentially conducive to an enhanced second/foreign language learning experience, namely, enjoyment, well-being, resilience, emotion regulation, academic engagement, grit, and loving pedagogy. Particularly germane to the well-being factor is Oxford’s (2016) EMPATHICS model, comprising nine components which she believes pave the way for boosting FLA. These components are: (a) emotion and empathy, (b) meaning and motivation, (c) perseverance including hope, resilience, and optimism, (d) agency and autonomy, (e) time, (f) hardiness and habits of mind, (g) intelligence, (i) character strengths, and (j) self factors, that is, self-verification, self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy.
Prior research has well attested to the benefits of fostering positive factors in language learners in terms of grit (Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022; Khajavy et al., 2021), growth mindset (Sadoughi et al., 2023; Zarrinabadi et al., 2022; L.J. Zhang et al., 2022), and self-efficacy (Bai & Wang, 2023). As MacIntyre et al. (2019) argue, research on PP in SLA makes as its primary agenda a focus on a strengths-based approach to empirical inquiry as opposed to a deficiency-based approach. As such, researchers have focused on what individuals excel in and concerned themselves much less with what they might get wrong and fail at. Accordingly, there is currently a vibrant strand of research primarily concerned with pinpointing the characteristics or personal attributes that best match the profile of a successful L2 learner (e.g. Derakhshan et al., 2022; Dewaele et al., 2019; Khajavy et al., 2021; Pawlak et al., 2022). However, as Oxford (2016) pointed out and as has been reiterated by Wang et al. (2021), much remains to be done for conclusive results to be reached, which points to the need for further research. At the same time, MacIntyre (2021) warns of the potential pitfall of what he calls the ‘tyranny of positive thinking’ (p. 7), which the proponents of PP must be wary of. He believes that universal positivity is an unhealthy expectation and encourages a prudent approach which takes a balanced account of both positive and negative experiences in SLA research.
2 L2 Growth Mindset
The process of L2 learning is in many ways distinct from other learning experiences that students might go through. Learning additional languages is characterized by interpersonal, intercultural, and non-linear dynamics replete with failures and breakdowns in communication which take a toll on learners’ resilience and effort (Papi & Hiver, 2020; Yun et al., 2018). Faced with such circumstances, how L2 learners manage to deal with the arising challenges plays a central role in shaping their achievement. Some learners believe that their intellectual abilities are malleable and sustained effort is an effective way of overcoming challenges, while others might be convinced that their cognitive abilities and personality traits are fixed and no matter how much effort they expend, they are not going to succeed (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022; Zarrinabadi & Lou, 2022). The former stance, known as a ‘growth mindset’, leads students to view challenges as opportunities for development and for honing skills that will enhance the learning process (Gouëdard, 2021). In contrast, the latter perspective (i.e. a fixed mindset) acts as a deterrent to expending effort, results in avoidance of self-regulated learning, and leads to excessive focus on learning outcomes (Dweck, 2013; Dweck & Yeager, 2019). In the context of this study, participants’ growth mindset was assessed using a modified scale based on Dweck’s (2013) mindset questionnaire, tailored to suit the specific context of foreign language learning. From this perspective, growth mindset refers to the belief that intelligence and language learning abilities are not fixed traits, but, rather, can be developed and improved over time through dedication, effort, and learning strategies.
There is empirical evidence showing a positive relationship between the growth mindset and FLA. For instance, Khajavy et al. (2021) examined the role of mindset as a predictor of L2 achievement in a sample of 1,178 university students enrolled in a general English course and found that a positive contribution of a growth mindset in this respect. In contrast, a fixed mindset did not predict L2 achievement and demonstrated a negative correlation with growth mindset. Lou and Noels (2020) reported that a growth mindset was significantly effective in curbing perceived language-based rejection and fostered students’ communication. Zarrinabadi et al. (2021) found that learners’ growth mindset was significantly correlated with their communicative competence and their confident use of the L2 in the classroom. Students with a growth mindset also achieved higher grades compared with those with fixed mindset in the study conducted by Lou et al. (2022).
The growth mindset has also been investigated in conjunction with other factors in the L2 educational context. Sadoughi et al. (2023), for example, investigated the contribution of growth mindset to L2 academic engagement and found that this attribute predicts engagement via the mediating role of ideal L2 self. Empirical studies have also revealed that a growth mindset is associated with higher levels of grit (Karlen et al., 2019; C.S. Lee & Jang, 2018; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023), motivation (Lou & Noels, 2019; Thorner & Kikuchi, 2019), self-confidence (Ozdemir & Papi, 2022) and self-efficacy (Bai & Wang, 2023; Ciaccio, 2019), thus having the potential to enhance FLA.
Researchers in this area of inquiry must keep in mind possible issues in need of adjustment that might have affected the studies mentioned above. Khajavy et al. (2021), for instance, relied on only end-of-term grades for FLA, which raises concerns with regard to their validity. Lou and Noels’s (2020) participants were university students who can be considered to possess high levels of proficiency, which in turn affects their language mindset. Sadoughi et al. (2023) acknowledge the mediating role of grit for growth mindset although they fail to incorporate grit in their model. By the same token, Bai and Wang (2023) suggest that their correlational analysis of growth mindset and FLA has possibly ignored a number of strategies that the students might make use of in their learning efforts, thus indicating the possible mediating impacts of factors such as grit.
3 L2 self-efficacy
The emergence of the social cognitive theory in psychology engendered a novel perspective on how we perceive human learning and regulatory behavior (S. Graham, 2022). Drawing attention to the concept of ‘locus of control’ and ‘attribution theory’, the approach sheds new light on how humans ‘organize and execute’ (Bandura, 1997, p. 3) a course of action. As one of the crucial concepts related to the socio-cognitive approach, self-efficacy is the exercise of that control and is defined as the ‘students’ own judgment on their capability to perform certain actions in order to achieve desirable learning outcomes’ (Bai et al., 2022, p. 3). Self-efficacy beliefs are mainly originated from previous experience, vicarious experience, significant others, and physiological and affective states (Pawlak et al., 2020). Students who believe they are self-efficacious are more likely to maintain their efforts even in the face of adverse educational circumstances and are hence more likely to succeed. By contrast, students with unpropitious self-efficacy beliefs tend to give up too easily while performing challenging tasks. In this study, self-efficacy refers to individuals’ belief in their capability to successfully complete specific tasks or accomplish specific goals in the context of English language learning (Cai & Xing, 2023).
The contributions of self-efficacy are now evident for researchers in a range of fields, including L2 education (see S. Graham, 2022). Analysing data from a sample of 1,954 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in secondary schools in Singapore, Bai et al. (2022) found that their self-efficacy was positively correlated with class engagement and metacognitive self-regulation. The link between self-efficacy and self-regulation was also earlier revealed by Joo et al. (2013), who reported as well a negative correlation with avoidance coping. L.S. Teng (2021) also found that self-efficacy beliefs strongly predicted the use of cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational regulation strategies which in turn were positive correlates of achievement. On the whole, ‘self-efficacy has been proven a very powerful predictor of . . . academic success’ (Bai et al., 2022, p. 447), and its beneficial effects on L2 learning outcomes have been reported in a number of studies (e.g. Bai & Wang, 2023; Bai et al., 2019; Chao et al., 2019; S. Graham, 2022; Pawlak et al., 2020). Self-efficacy beliefs have also been shown to correlate with L2 learning motivation (M.F. Teng et al., 2021), enjoyment (An et al., 2021), growth mindset (Bai et al., 2021; Bai & Wang, 2023; Ciaccio, 2019), and L2 grit (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2020; Usher et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022).
Of particular significance in educational discussions of the role of self-efficacy in human behavior is the self-regulatory capacity it assigns to the individual. As L.S. Teng (2021) has pointed out, self-efficacious students possess the cognitive means of regulating, or directing, their focal course of action. While being in line with Bandura’s theory of locus of control (Bandura, 1989, 1997; S. Graham, 2022), this conceptualization of student behavior places due emphasis on the agency of the individual learner (Larsen-Freeman, 2019; Mercer, 2011). This learner agency, coupled with his or her behavior regulation capacity (Bai & Wang, 2023; L.S. Teng, 2021), warrants acquiring empirical evidence as to how the learners direct, manage, persevere, and invest themselves in their efforts to learn an L2. These individuals’ belief in their prospective success (i.e. growth mindset) and their sustained effort toward their goals (i.e. grit) have been examined in isolation in the prior studies outlined above. Nonetheless, there remains a need for an integrative model which brings together such constructs to scrutinize their joint impacts in a language learning context, which is the aim of the current study.
4 L2 grit
As a non-cognitive factor strongly espoused in psychology, the concept of grit was introduced by Duckworth et al. (2007) who argued that it can positively affect performance. They also viewed this variable as a higher order construct which consists of two underlying subfactors: Perseverance of Effort (PE) and Consistency of Interest (CI). PE describes a state in which the individual expends great effort when completing a given task and sustains that effort over time while CI refers to a tendency to maintain zeal and interest in the pursuit of one’s goals even when faced with hurdles and setbacks. In this study, L2 grit was assessed using the scale developed and validated by Teimouri et al. (2022), consisting of two sub-scales: CI and PE. It encompasses the stability of individuals’ interest in learning English over time, as well as their determination and commitment to overcoming challenges in their language learning process. The link between grit and performance has been examined in multiple areas, and grittiness has been positively associated, among other things, with life satisfaction, openness to experience, extraversion, academic achievement, and grade point average (GPA) (Alamer, 2021, 2022; Steinmayr et al., 2018). Nonetheless, it is worth noting that some studies have raised questions about the extent of grit’s influence, suggesting that its impact may have been overestimated. Additionally, some experts have expressed concerns regarding the underlying structure of the grit construct (see Credé & Tynan, 2021; Credé et al., 2017).
Since SLA is a long process which entails great amounts of effort and interest, the concept of grit is of particular pertinence to this field (Derakhshan et al., 2023; Teimouri et al., 2022) and merits empirical research (Oxford & Khajavy, 2021). Within the extant literature, grit has been shown to either directly or indirectly (through a mediating effect) contribute to FLA. The study by Elahi Shirvan and Alamer (2022) showed that the PE constituent of grit is significantly related to L2 achievement beside playing a significant mediating role between basic psychological needs and FLA. Similar results were reported by Wei et al. (2019) who showed that grit positively and directly correlated with foreign language performance while also indirectly affecting it through foreign language enjoyment. This relationship has been corroborated in studies by Khajavy and Aghaee (2022), Sudina and Plonsky (2021), and Teimouri et al. (2022). Additionally, grit has been shown to correlate with motivation (Pawlak et al., 2022), academic engagement (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023), enjoyment (Wei et al., 2019), willingness to communicate (Teimouri et al., 2022), and perceived teacher support (Hejazi & Sadoughi, 2022). At the same time, grit tends to be negatively related to language learning anxiety, fixed mindset, and boredom (Pawlak et al., 2022; Teimouri et al., 2022).
A number of considerations need to be taken into account in empirical investigations of grit. The first is the domain-specificity of this trait, which has important implications for the validity and reliability of the findings (Teimouri et al., 2022). However, some of the previous studies have adopted domain-general measurements in their research (Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Khajavy et al., 2021). Another observation pertaining to the generalizability of the findings concerns research participants. For example, Teimouri et al. (2022) recruited university students majoring in English, but such participants are likely to have high levels of linguistic competence due to the intersection of their career, interest, and efforts, and this might affect their grit scores. In addition, several studies have pointed to the inconsistency of the results with respect the subcomponents of grit (especially the strong overlap of PE with conscientiousness and the low explanatory effect of CI), emphasizing the need for further research (Alamer, 2021; Credé et al., 2017; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Teimouri et al., 2022). Furthermore, Elahi Shirvan and Alamer (2022) have highlighted scarcity of research on the antecedents of grit, particularly in the language learning context, and called for testing integrated models of the construct.
The inclusion of grit as a mediator in our study is underpinned by several theoretical and empirical considerations. First, existing literature suggests that grit may act as a bridge between mindset and self-efficacy (Yeh et al., 2023; H. Zhao et al., 2023), translating these cognitive beliefs into tangible behavioral outcomes. Individuals with a growth mindset, who believe in the malleability of their abilities through effort, are more likely to engage in persistent endeavors to succeed (Duckworth et al., 2011). Similarly, self-efficacious individuals, confident in their capabilities, tend to persevere in the face of challenges (Bandura, 1997). Grit, with its core components of perseverance and consistency, serves as a behavioral manifestation of these beliefs. Therefore, by examining the mediating role of grit, we aim to provide insights into how growth mindset and self-efficacy translate into sustained effort and determination in the context of language learning. Second, the choice of grit as a mediator is rooted in its potential to capture the comprehensive impact of these variables on FLA. While individual factors such as growth mindset and self-efficacy have been explored in isolation (e.g. Kutuk et al., 2022; Lou & Noels, 2019; Lou et al., 2022), attempts to provide a holistic understanding of their combined influence remain scarce. Grit offers a distinctive lens through which we can assess the cumulative effects of these variables, recognizing the intricate interplay and synergy among them (Khajavy et al., 2021; Teimouri et al., 2022). It allows us to transcend simplistic dichotomies and embrace the richness and complexity inherent in real-world language learning scenarios. By elucidating the mediating role of grit, we aspire to unravel the intricate web of interactions between growth mindset, self-efficacy, and FLA. This approach not only contributes to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms but also might offer practical insights that can inform tailored interventions and instructional practices for language educators, practitioners, and policy-makers.
5 Foreign language achievement
Language learning is a process of socialization and, as such, it involves a conglomerate of interpersonal, linguistic, sociological, and psychological aspects. Accordingly, a multiplicity of factors pertinent to these areas can affect the process and of L2 learning as well as its outcomes (Khajavy, 2021). As Sadoughi and Hejazi (2023, p. 2) point out, these factors can be either ‘learner-external’ (e.g. teacher support) or ‘learner-internal’ (e.g. growth mindset and grit). SLA research has shed light on the role of some of these factors (see Ellis, 2008; Pawlak & Kruk, 2022). Wei et al. (2019), for instance, reported that foreign language enjoyment and a supportive classroom atmosphere enhance students’ L2 performance. With respect to ID factors, Teimouri et al. (2022) showed that anxiety and a fixed mindset negatively affect L2 achievement.
The studies investigating FLA can employ different measures to capture the construct. Bai and Wang (2023), for example, utilized a standardized English test, which was designed by a group of experienced teachers in the school under investigation. Standardized tests were also the measure of choice in studies by An et al. (2021), M.F. Teng et al. (2021), and Wei et al. (2019). Khajavy et al. (2021, p. 389) argue that ‘course grades have been reported to be more closely related to motivational and personality factors than standardized tests.’ Therefore, they opted for end-of-semester grades as a measure of FLA. This approach was also adopted by Khajavy and Aghaee (2022) and Lou et al. (2022), as well as Teimouri et al. (2022). Another popular measure of FLA is the students’ self-reports of their target-language (TL) competency. The studies conducted by Bai et al. (2019), Chao et al. (2019), and Elahi Shirvan and Alamer (2022) represent instances of using self-report measures for language achievement. In the present study, we opted for scores on a standardized test, namely, International English Language Testing System (IELTS), as a measure of TL proficiency.
Although the focus of positive psychology in FLA mainly resides in the ‘learner internal’ factors (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023), it is noteworthy to bear in mind the situated nature of language learning and the host of ‘external’ factors that can condition the psychological experience of the learners in terms of their efficacy, mindset, or grit. This might be the rationale for the skepticism that has been leveled at such individual factors (Credé & Tynan, 2021; Credé et al., 2017; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Khajavy et al., 2021). Indeed, as Larsen-Freeman (2019) illustrates, language learning resembles a complex dynamic system in which isolated analysis of a single factor might offer inconsiderable contributions in the way of explanatory power. Therefore, while the necessity of conducting studies that yield empirical findings in the form of integrated models is valued, it is important to make judicious interpretations of those findings.
6 The rationale and hypothesized model
SLA research has identified a number of factors and constellations of factors that affect the process of L2 learning and success in this endeavor. The present study aims to contribute to this line of inquiry which is important for theorists, researchers, teachers and learners. One ID factor that has gained considerable attention in recent years is grit (Khajavy et al., 2021; Teimouri et al., 2022). Several theoretical and empirical studies suggest that grit is a key predictor of success in various domains, including education (e.g. Bowman et al., 2015), sports (Ionel et al., 2023), and the workplace (Azari Noughabi et al., 2022). Therefore, the study sought to explore the relationship between grit and FLA. In connection with this, a number of hypotheses were formulated in the proposed model (see Figure 1).
The hypothesized model.
Hypothesis 1: Self-efficacy is positively related to L2 grit
Self-efficacy, rooted in Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, holds significant sway over human behavior and performance. In the realm of SLA, self-efficacy assumes a pivotal role, influencing learners’ motivation, endeavors, and endurance in the pursuit of L2 proficiency (Bai et al., 2022; Goetze & Driver, 2022; Yang et al., 2022). Recent studies have probed into the intersection of self-efficacy and L2 grit, uncovering their interconnectedness (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2020; Usher et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022). Therefore, hypothesis 1 posits that self-efficacy and L2 grit maintain a positive relationship. Specifically, individuals who possess a steadfast belief in their capacity to acquire a second language are more inclined to persist resolutely in the face of challenges encountered during the learning process. This hypothesis aligns with the premise that self-assurance in one’s learning capabilities engenders a tenacious spirit, ultimately bolstering perseverance in L2 learning.
Hypothesis 2: Growth mindset is positively related to L2 grit
Growth mindset theory proposes that individuals who believe that their abilities can be developed through hard work and dedication (i.e. growth mindset) are more likely to persist in the pursuit of their goals (Duckworth et al., 2007; Dweck & Yeager, 2019; Yeager & Dweck, 2012; Zarrinabadi & Lou, 2022). Therefore, hypothesis 2 proposes that growth mindset is positively related to L2 grit, as individuals who have a growth mindset are more likely to believe that their efforts will lead to improvement of their L2 skills and, therefore, persist in this endeavor.
Hypothesis 3: L2 grit is positively associated with FLA
Grit, as a construct, exerts a multifaceted influence on the dynamics of SLA. Its impact reverberates through learners’ motivation, application of effort, and unyielding persistence in the pursuit of L2 proficiency, ultimately culminating in enhanced language achievement (Sudina & Plonsky, 2021; Wei et al., 2019). Furthermore, individuals endowed with grit tend to engage more fervently in deliberate practice, a crucial component of skill development and mastery in language learning (Duckworth et al., 2011; S. Lee & Sohn, 2017). It is within this intricate web of influences that hypothesis 3 finds its footing, asserting that L2 grit is positively associated with FLA. This proposition hinges on the notion that students characterized by elevated levels of grit are predisposed to succeed in their language learning endeavors, propelled by their unwavering determination and sustained efforts.
Hypothesis 4: L2 grit mediates the relationship between student self-efficacy and FLA
The theoretical underpinnings of this hypothesis are rooted in an intricate web of relationships within the realm of SLA. Self-efficacy, a construct acknowledged for its profound influence on L2 learning outcomes, intertwines with the mediating role of grit, offering a multifaceted perspective on language achievement (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2020; Karbakhsh & Ahmadi Safa, 2020; Usher et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022). Self-efficacious students tend to attribute their academic success primarily to their own endeavors and abilities rather than external factors (Smith, 1989). This internal locus of control empowers them to approach language learning with unwavering confidence in their capacity to excel. At the heart of hypothesis 4 lies the proposition that L2 grit serves as a mediating agent, intricately linking student self-efficacy with FLA. As individuals manifest higher levels of self-efficacy, they also tend to exhibit greater grit, a tenacious commitment to long-term goals and the willingness to endure challenges (Duckworth et al., 2007). This synergy between self-efficacy and grit synergistically contributes to the development of TL proficiency, signifying that learners endowed with both self-assuredness and grit are better equipped to navigate the complexities of language learning, thus ultimately enhancing their FLA.
Hypothesis 5: L2 grit mediates the relationship between growth mindset and FLA
This hypothesis draws from a comprehensive framework integrating growth mindset, grit, and FLA within the SLA context. Each construct contributes distinct perspectives to this dynamic interplay, forming a tapestry of interconnected factors influencing language learning outcomes (Alamer, 2021, 2022; R. Oxford & Khajavy, 2021; C.S. Lee & Jang, 2018; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023; Y. Zhao et al., 2018). This intricate relationship is founded on the premise that individuals harboring a growth mindset are predisposed to exhibit higher levels of grit. The belief in the power of effort and the potential for improvement fuels a resilient determination to overcome obstacles and persist in language learning endeavors. Consequently, this tandem influence of growth mindset and grit collectively propels learners towards greater proficiency in the TL (Khajavy et al., 2021). As such, the hypothesis posits that L2 grit operates as the intermediary mechanism through which growth mindset channels its impact on FLA, elucidating the nuanced pathways in this multifaceted process.
III Method
This study is part of a larger-scale research project aimed at exploring the effects of various affective variables on FLA. However, in this particular study, we specifically focus on L2 grit, growth mindset and self-efficacy to examine their combined impact on language learning achievement.
1 Participants
A total of 379 EFL learners at the intermediate level took part in the study. They were enrolled in IELTS preparation courses at a big language center in Iran. The sample comprised 203 females and 176 males, with ages ranging from 19 to 33 years and a mean age of 22.04 years (SD = 2.41). The selection of this education center as the research site was based on its established reputation and its provision of comprehensive academic English services, including online, face-to-face, and video courses. This center attracts a diverse population of EFL learners who actively seek to enhance their English language proficiency for various purposes, such as work, study, migration, or travel. The choice of this context was motivated by its accessibility and the presence of a significant and diverse population of intermediate EFL learners actively engaged in communicative English language learning.
The participants were specifically selected based on their proficiency level, which was determined through the language center’s placement test, ensuring homogeneity within the sample. Intermediate learners were specifically targeted as the study focused on affective variables that could potentially be influenced by proficiency level. It is worth noting that all participants were actively enrolled in the language center’s specific language program, which testifies to their commitment to improving their English language skills and proficiency.
2 Instruments
a Growth mindset
To measure growth mindset, a scale adapted from Papi et al. (2019) was utilized. The scale is based on Dweck’s (2013) mindset questionnaire and has been modified to fit the specific context of foreign language learning. This concise scale comprises four items, and the participants were asked to rate each item on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 6 (‘strongly agree’). A sample item is ‘I can change even my basic language learning intelligence considerably.’
b L2 grit
The L2 grit scale developed and validated by Teimouri et al. (2022) was employed. This scale consists of nine items and encompasses two sub-scales: Consistency of Interest (CI) and Perseverance of Effort (PE). The CI sub-scale includes four items that assess the stability of individuals’ interest in learning English over time such as ‘My interests in learning English change from year to year.’ The PE sub-scale comprises five items that measure participants’ determination and commitment to overcoming challenges in their language learning journey, such as ‘I will not allow anything to stop me from making progress in learning English.’ The participants were asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). Teimouri et al. (2022) have demonstrated the scale’s strong construct validity and reported high internal consistency coefficients for both sub-scales, indicating its reliability in assessing individuals’ grit in L2 learning.
We opted to employ a composite score for grit rather than analysing its individual components separately. This choice stems from the understanding that both CI and PE are interrelated facets that jointly contribute to individuals’ enduring commitment and enthusiasm for long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). While some studies suggest that PE might exhibit a more pronounced relationship with achievement (Wolters & Hussain, 2015), it is essential to acknowledge the inherent interconnectedness of these components, collectively forming the overarching grit construct (Lam & Zhou, 2022). This comprehensive approach aligns with our research objective, which centers on exploring the holistic impact of grit on FLA within the context of our study.
c Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy was tapped into by means of the English Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (ESEQ) developed by Cai and Xing (2023), which consists of six items. These items were originally adapted from the self-efficacy subscale of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) developed by Pintrich et al. (1991). The participants were asked to indicate their level of aspiration for success in their English courses on a 6-point scale, ranging from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 6 (‘strongly agree’). An example item is ‘I’m confident I can understand the basic concepts taught in this English course.’ The ESEQ has proved to be valid and reliable in measuring self-efficacy beliefs in the context of English language learning.
d Foreign language achievement
In this study, FLA was measured using a sample IELTS test adapted from the reputable Cambridge IELTS series, which is widely acknowledged for providing reliable practice materials. A well-established and validated assessment tool, IELTS, is used to evaluate English language proficiency in various contexts. The adapted IELTS test encompassed four distinct sections, each designed to assess specific language skills. The listening section included a total of 40 items, incorporating diverse listening tasks like multiple-choice questions, matching exercises, and note completion. Similarly, the reading section consisted of 40 items, evaluating participants’ reading comprehension skills through tasks such as multiple-choice questions, true/false/not given exercises, and short-answer questions. In the writing section, participants completed two assignments: One involved composing a description or explanation of a graph, chart, table, or diagram (Task 1), and the other required writing an essay in response to a given topic (Task 2), resulting in a total of two scores. The speaking section involved a face-to-face interview with a proficient examiner. Participants responded to a series of questions and prompts, engaging in a conversation with the examiner. Although this section did not have a fixed item count in the traditional sense, it was assessed using a comprehensive scoring rubric that evaluated various aspects of speaking proficiency. The cumulative scores from these sections provided a comprehensive evaluation of participants’ English proficiency. The IELTS test typically employs a scoring scale ranging from zero to 9 for each section, with an overall score also falling within this range. In our study, the mean IELTS score for participants was 6.16, aligning with the specified range for IELTS scores.
To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the FLA scores, two trained IELTS examiners were involved in meticulously rating the participants’ performance on the test. These examiners received rigorous training and adhered to standardized scoring criteria provided by the IELTS testing authorities. Regular meetings were held throughout the data collection period, specifically from 1 June to 10 June 2022, to address any discrepancies and establish consensus on the scoring process. This collaborative approach was instrumental in ensuring inter-rater reliability.
3 Procedure
Data collection was conducted over multiple days to ensure the thoroughness and accuracy of our study. The process spanned from 1 June 2022 to 10 June 2022, with specific tasks and procedures distributed across this timeframe. The first phase of data collection involved the administration of participant surveys. The participants completed the questionnaires electronically using Google Forms, a web-based survey tool provided by Google Workspace. The survey was divided into two parts. The first part included a section designed to elicit demographic information. This section collected data on participants’ age, gender, educational background, language learning experience, and their native language. Subsequently, participants engaged in the second part of the survey, which involved responding to validated scales assessing self-efficacy, L2 grit, and growth mindset. These responses were based on participants’ beliefs and attitudes towards L2 learning. The participants were given a window of five days, from 1 June to 5 June 2022, to complete these surveys at their convenience. Following the completion of the electronic surveys, the learners participated in face-to-face assessments of their English language skills. These assessments comprised four sections, aligning with the IELTS test components: Listening, Reading, Writing, and Speaking. This phase took place on a single day, 10 June 2022, and adhered strictly to the standardized guidelines provided by IELTS testing authorities.
To ensure the accurate matching of questionnaire responses with test scores, each participant was assigned a unique identification code during the data collection process. This identification code was used to link the participants’ questionnaire responses with their corresponding test scores while maintaining their anonymity. No personally identifiable information was collected, and the participants were assured that their responses and test scores would be treated confidentially and used exclusively for research purposes.
Throughout the study, ethical considerations were carefully observed. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, guaranteeing their voluntary participation and safeguarding their rights. The study strictly adhered to the principles of confidentiality and anonymity, with participant data being treated with the utmost care and used exclusively for research purposes. Moreover, the study was conducted in full compliance with the ethical guidelines established by the institution and relevant research ethics committees.
4 Data analysis
During the initial phase, the researchers utilized SPSS 26.0 to conduct descriptive and correlation analyses to explore the associations among the variables. To test the research hypotheses, they employed the AMOS software (version 25.0) for SEM. Initially, the construct validity of the scales was assessed through the measurement model, following the guidelines provided by Brown (2015). Subsequently, the researchers examined the underlying structural model. To evaluate the overall goodness of fit of the proposed model, multiple fit indices were employed. These fit indices included the χ2-goodness of fit to degree of freedom (df) ratio, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual (SRMR). Consistent with established criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2023), a χ2/df ratio of less than 3 with a p-value exceeding .05 was considered acceptable. Additionally, GFI and CFI values of 0.90 or higher (Hu & Bentler, 1999) indicated a good fit, while RMSEA < 0.08 and SRMR < 0.10 (Kline, 2023; Marsh et al., 2004) were also indicative of a good fit.
IV Results
1 Initial screening
Missing data can undermine the accuracy and generalizability of the findings. To address this concern, a thorough examination of missing values was conducted. The missing patterns and rates were assessed for each variable using such techniques as Little’s (1988) Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test. Multiple imputation methods, such as the Expectation-Maximization algorithm or Markov Chain Monte Carlo, were then employed to impute missing values based on observed patterns (Enders, 2010). Sensitivity analyses were conducted to ensure the robustness of the results across different imputation techniques (J.W. Graham, 2009).
To identify and address outliers, various techniques were applied. Visual inspections of scatter plots, box plots, and histograms were undertaken to detect extreme observations (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Statistical measures such as z-scores, Mahalanobis distance, and leverage values were computed to quantify the degree of outlyingness (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019; Field, 2013). The outliers were either excluded from the analysis or subjected to appropriate transformations (e.g. Winsorization) to minimize their impact (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).
To assess univariate normality, skewness and kurtosis statistics were computed, and graphical tools such as histograms and Q-Q plots were examined. Deviations from normality were addressed through transformations (e.g. logarithmic, square root) or by employing robust estimation techniques such as bootstrapping (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Multivariate normality was evaluated using diagnostics tests such as Mardia’s (1970) coefficient of multivariate kurtosis and Henze–Zirkler’s multivariate normality test (Henze & Zirkler, 1990). Departures from multivariate normality were handled using robust estimation techniques, such as maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors or bootstrapping, which can provide more accurate parameter estimates and standard errors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).
2 Descriptive statistics
Following the initial data screening, descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables were calculated. As indicated in Table 1, growth mindset had a mean of 2.97 (SD = 0.59), and it showed a significant positive correlation with self-efficacy (r = 0.374, p < .01), indicating a relatively small positive relationship (see Plonsky & Oswald, 2014). Self-efficacy had a mean of 3.22 (SD = 0.63) and demonstrated a significant moderate positive correlation with growth mindset (r = 0.374, p < .01). Grit had a mean of 3.76 (SD = 0.77) and showed significant positive correlations with both growth mindset (r = 0.564, p < .01) and self-efficacy (r = 0.517, p < .01). FLA had a mean of 6.16 (SD = 1.89) and showed significant positive correlations with growth mindset (r = 0.447, p < .01), self-efficacy (r = 0.478, p < .01), and grit (r = 0.643, p < .01).
Descriptive statistics and correlations.
Notes. FLA = foreign language achievement.** p < .01.
3 Measurement model
The measurement model of the constructs (growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA) was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Following the guidelines by Hair et al. (2019), indicators with factor loadings greater than .50 which were statistically significant (p < .01) were retained. Consequently, two indicators were removed, SE3 from self-efficacy and GR3 from grit. After implementing these adjustments, the final model (see Figure 2) was obtained. The results of the final CFA model demonstrated a satisfactory fit with the observed data, supported by the following fit indices: χ2 = 893, df = 465, χ2/df = 1.92, p < .001, GFI = 0.953, CFI = 0.927, RMSEA = 0.045 (90% CI [0.035, 0.055]), TLI = 0.901, SRMR = 0.072. These results indicate that the measurement model effectively represents the data.
The final partial model.
To evaluate the discriminant validity of our constructs, we employed various established criteria. First, we examined the factor loadings for each indicator, all of which were statistically significant at the 0.001 level (see Table 2), confirming that each indicator effectively measures its intended construct. Next, we calculated the average variance extracted (AVE) for growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit, with values exceeding the recommended threshold of .50 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Kline, 2023). These AVE values indicate that indicators converge effectively on their respective constructs. To further assess discriminant validity, we considered the maximum shared variance (MSV) values, which were found to be lower than the AVE values. This indicates that each construct possesses more unique variance than shared variance with other constructs. Additionally, the average shared variance (ASV) values were relatively low, providing further evidence of discriminant validity between the constructs (Hair et al., 2019).
Results of measurement model.
Notes. AVE = average variance extracted. MSV = maximum shared variance. ASV = average shared variance. CR = construct or composite reliability. GM = growth mindset. GR = grit. SE = self-efficacy. FLA = foreign language achievement. *** shows significance level of 0.001.
Furthermore, we ensured favorable internal consistency reliability by examining Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability coefficients, all of which exceeded the recommended threshold of .70 (Dörnyei, 2007). In addition, in order to evaluate the potential presence of common method bias, we conducted the Harmon’s one-factor test (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). The findings demonstrated that the variance explained by the single factor was 38.16%, suggesting that common method bias is not a major issue of concern in this particular study.
4 Structural model
After confirming the satisfactory fit of the measurement model, we proceeded to test alternative structural models to evaluate the hypotheses formulated for the study. Three models were compared: The hypothesized partial mediation model, the full mediation model with all path coefficients from self-efficacy and growth mindset to L2 achievement (FLA) constrained to zero, and the direct model with all path coefficients to and from grit constrained to zero. The fit statistics for these models are presented in Table 3. The hypothesized model demonstrated significantly better fit compared to both the full mediation model (Δdf = 6, Δχ2 = 126.34, p < .001) and the direct model (Δdf = 12, Δχ2 = 210.70, p < .001). All fit indices exhibited substantial improvement, supporting the selection of the partially mediated model as the most parsimonious fit for the data.
Results of fit indices of alternative structural models.
Notes. Δχ2 shows differences between each model and the subsequent model. ** p < .001.
Figure 2 presents the estimated results for the final model with partial mediation. All path coefficients were found to be statistically significant. The structural model provided support for hypothesis 1, indicating that self-efficacy is directly related with L2 grit (β = .401, p < .001). Likewise, hypothesis 2 was supported, showing a significant positive relationship between growth mindset and grit (β = .446, p < .001). Additionally, hypothesis 3 received support as grit was positively associated with FLA (β = .472, p < .001). To examine the mediating role of grit among the variables investigated in the study, we employed the Baron and Kenny (1986) method. The direct model (Table 4) revealed significant path coefficients for self-efficacy and growth mindset (self-efficacy → FLA: β = .295, p < .01; growth mindset → FLA: β = .217, p < .05) in relation to L2 achievement, fulfilling the initial step of Baron and Kenny’s test.
Path estimates of structural model.
Notes. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
In line with the approach outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986), we examined both the full and partial mediation models. In the full mediation model, we observed significant paths from self-efficacy and growth mindset to grit (self-efficacy → grit: β = .422, p < .001; growth mindset → grit: β = .493, p < .001), meeting the second requirement of the Baron and Kenny (1986) method. In the partial mediation model, self-efficacy demonstrated a significant direct relationship with FLA (β = .268, p < .01) and an indirect relationship through grit (β = .189). However, the direct relationship outweighed the indirect one (.189 < .268), providing partial support for hypothesis 4. A modest, statistically significant correlation coefficient was detected between growth mindset and FLA (β = .148, p < .05), yet grit partially mediated the relationship between growth mindset and FLA (growth mindset → grit → FLA, .446 × .472 = .210 > .148), offering support for hypothesis 5.
Additionally, we examined the structural invariance of the mediation model to determine if the structural path coefficients differed significantly between genders. The findings revealed that the proposed model exhibited a favorable fit with the data for both male and female groups. Specifically, the model demonstrated χ2/df = 1.47, p < .001, GFI = 0.920, CFI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.038 (90% CI [0.032, 0.045]), TLI = 0.945, and SRMR = 0.056. Multi-group invariance analysis across gender indicated that both the constrained model (χ2/df = 1.47, GFI = 0.920, CFI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.038 (90% CI [0.032, 0.045]), TLI = 0.945, and SRMR = 0.056) and the unconstrained model (χ2/df = 1.52, GFI = 0.917, CFI = 0.936, RMSEA = 0.045 (90% CI [0.038, 0.052]), TLI = 0.948, and SRMR = 0.062) exhibited satisfactory fit with the data. The χ2 difference test between the constrained and unconstrained models (Δχ2 = 6.21, Δdf = 4, p = 0.182) indicated that the model coefficients in the proposed mediation model were invariant across genders. Furthermore, separate SEM analyses of the structural model for males and females revealed acceptable fit for male students (χ2/df = 1.49, GFI = 0.922, CFI = 0.940, RMSEA = 0.039 (90% CI [0.033, 0.046]), TLI = 0.946, and SRMR = 0.057) and female students (χ2/df = 1.55, GFI = 0.915, CFI = 0.932, RMSEA = 0.046 (90% CI [0.039, 0.053]), TLI = 0.947, and SRMR = 0.063). Therefore, no significant differences were found between male and female students in terms of both the direct and indirect effects of the variables on L2 achievement. In addition, the mediating role of grit was also invariant across both genders.
Finally, to explore the potential reciprocal relationship between growth mindset and self-efficacy, an alternative model was tested, incorporating a correlational path between these constructs. The revised model underwent SEM analysis to evaluate its fit with the data, displaying the following fit indices: χ2 = 862.21, df = 489, GFI = 0.891, CFI = 0.922, RMSEA = 0.049 (90% CI [0.036, 0.061]), TLI = 0.912, and SRMR = 0.066. Compared to the original model (χ2 = 753.42, df = 513, GFI = 0.915, CFI = 0.979, RMSEA = 0.042, TLI = 0.947, SRMR = 0.058), the fit indices in this alternative model indicated a notable decrease in fit. This suggests a slightly weaker fit, possibly due to the complexity introduced by the additional correlational path (Bollen & Long, 1993).
The inclusion of a correlational link between growth mindset and self-efficacy revealed a significant association (r = .336, p < .01), indicating a positive relationship between these constructs. Additionally, a Sobel test analysis (MacKinnon et al., 2007) investigating the indirect impact of growth mindset on FLA through self-efficacy revealed a substantial indirect effect (β = .0864, z = 2.25, p < .05). This suggests that growth mindset contributes partially to FLA through its influence on self-efficacy (See Figure 3).
The alternative model.
V Discussion
The present study investigated the relationships among student growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA in a sample of intermediate EFL learners. The findings provide valuable insights into the interplay of these constructs and shed light on their implications for L2 learning outcomes.
First, the results of this study indicate that self-efficacy is directly related with FLA. This finding is theoretically supported by Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive theory. According to this theory, individuals’ beliefs in their own abilities and their confidence in performing specific tasks significantly influence their motivation, effort, and ultimately their achievement outcomes. In the context of L2 learning, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy are more likely to approach language learning tasks with a positive mindset, persist through challenges, and employ effective learning strategies (Chao et al., 2019; Goetze & Driver, 2022; Yang et al., 2022). They are inclined to set higher goals, exert greater effort, and persevere in their L2 learning endeavors, which leads to greater L2 achievement (S. Graham, 2022; M.F. Teng et al., 2021).
From this perspective, when L2 learners possess a strong sense of self-efficacy in their L2 learning abilities, they are more likely to engage in active and goal-directed learning behaviors, actively seek out challenging learning opportunities, and persist in the face of setbacks or difficulties (Karbakhsh & Ahmadi Safa, 2020). These proactive behaviors contribute to deeper processing of language input, enhanced learning strategies, and improved language performance (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2020). Furthermore, individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to attribute their success and failure to their own efforts and abilities rather than external factors (Smith, 1989). This internal locus of control fosters a sense of personal responsibility and self-regulation, leading to increased engagement and investment in language learning tasks (Bai et al., 2022; Joo et al., 2013). As a result, learners with higher self-efficacy are more likely to demonstrate greater dedication, resilience, and focus, which directly impact their FLA (Bai & Wang, 2023; Bai et al., 2022; L.S. Teng, 2021).
Second, L2 grit was found to be directly associated with FLA. This finding aligns with previous research that has consistently demonstrated a positive relationship between grit and L2 achievement in various contexts (e.g. Alamer, 2021, 2022; Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022; Khajavy et al., 2021; Oxford & Khajavy, 2021). L2 learners with higher levels of grit are more likely to persist in their language learning efforts, overcome inevitable challenges, and consistently engage in learning activities (Alamer, 2021, 2022; Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022; Wei et al., 2019). This sustained effort and commitment are crucial for making progress and ultimately achieving higher levels of TL proficiency (Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Sudina and Plonsky, 2021). Furthermore, the concept of grit fits in well with the notion of deliberate practice, which is a well-established theoretical framework for achieving expertise in any domain (Duckworth et al., 2011). Deliberate practice emphasizes the importance of consistent and focused effort, continuous improvement, and pushing one’s boundaries to reach higher levels of proficiency (S. Lee & Sohn, 2017). Individuals with higher levels of grit are more likely to engage in deliberate practice, dedicating sufficient time and effort to language learning activities, seeking feedback, and actively working on their weaknesses. From this perspective, individuals with higher levels of grit can enhance their language skills and ultimately improve their FLA (Sudina & Plonsky, 2021).
Third, it was found that self-efficacy is related with FLA, and this relationship is mediated by L2 grit (self-efficacy → grit → FLA). In the context of language learning, self-efficacy beliefs play a crucial role in influencing learners’ motivation, persistence, and performance (Bai et al., 2022; Cai & Xing, 2023). When individuals possess high self-efficacy with respect to their language learning abilities, they are more likely to believe that they can overcome difficulties, persist in their efforts, and achieve their language learning goals (Usher et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022; Young Kyo, 2022). This strong belief in their own capabilities strengthens their determination and commitment, which are central components of grit, ultimately enhancing L2 achievement (Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022). Furthermore, self-efficacy is closely related to goal-directed behaviors and task engagement (Cai & Xing, 2023; Duckworth et al., 2011). Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to set challenging goals, exert effort, and maintain focus even in the face of obstacles (Bai & Wang, 2023; Bernacki et al., 2015; S. Graham, 2022). These behaviors align with the components of grit, that is, perseverance and sustained effort as well as interest. When individuals possess a strong belief in their language learning abilities, they are more likely to engage in goal-directed behaviors and exhibit the determination and passion associated with grit (Cai & Zhao, 2023). Thus, self-efficacy acts as a precursor to the development of grit, and both constructs work together to influence FLA (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2020; Karbakhsh & Ahmadi Safa, 2020; Usher et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022).
Fourth, the interplay between growth mindset and grit can be seen as a synergistic process that fuels learners’ determination and resilience in their language learning process. By embracing a growth mindset, learners cultivate a belief in their capacity for growth and improvement, which energizes their pursuit of challenging L2 learning goals (Dweck & Yeager, 2019; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). This mindset, when coupled with grit, enables learners to persist in the face of obstacles, bounce back from failures, and maintain their effort and focus over an extended period (Duckworth et al., 2007). The combination of these factors creates a self-reinforcing cycle: Growth mindset fuels grit, and grit reinforces the growth mindset, leading to a continuous drive for learning and achievement in the foreign language domain.
Finally, the present study revealed that growth mindset is related to FLA through the mediating role of grit. When learning an L2, individuals with a growth mindset perceive this process as an arduous undertaking that requires effort and persistence (Lou & Noels, 2020; Lou et al., 2022). They firmly believe that their language skills can improve through dedicated practice and reliance on effective language learning strategies. This mindset encourages learners to embrace challenges, seek feedback and support, and persist in the face of difficulties (Oxford & Khajavy, 2021). By adopting a growth mindset, learners develop a positive attitude toward learning and actively engage in deliberate practice, continuously seeking opportunities to enhance their skills, which ultimately contributes to the development of grit (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023; Y. Zhao et al., 2018). In essence, when L2 learners possess a growth mindset, they are more likely to exhibit higher levels of L2 grit, which enables them to demonstrate determination, resilience, and commitment necessary to sustain and advance their language learning efforts (C.S. Lee & Jang, 2018; Lou & Noels, 2019). This enhanced grit, in turn, positively affects L2 achievement (Alamer, 2021, 2022). In this context, growth-mindset learners with higher levels of grit are more inclined to persist in their efforts, even when encountering difficulties or setbacks, and maintain their self-regulated learning behaviors over time, resulting in improved FLA (Bai et al., 2021; Khajavy et al., 2022). In the domain of foreign language learning, individuals with a growth mindset may exhibit higher levels of grit, which in turn translates into language learning outcomes (Khajavy et al., 2021).
The distinctive outcomes of this study underscore the domain-specific nature of the examined constructs. Specifically, our findings reveal a significant and direct relationship between self-efficacy and FLA, aligning with Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive theory. This emphasizes the vital role that learners’ beliefs in their own capabilities play in their language learning endeavors, fostering perseverance, effective strategies, and ultimately, heightened achievement outcomes. Moreover, the study highlights the pivotal influence of L2 grit on FLA, reinforcing the results of previous research indicating the positive relationship between grit and language learning outcomes. This reaffirms the critical role of sustained effort and unwavering commitment in achieving higher levels of L2 attainment. Together, these unique findings illuminate the nuanced interplay of self-efficacy and grit in the EFL context, further emphasizing the domain-specificity of these constructs (Khajavy et al., 2022) and their pivotal contributions to language achievement.
VI Conclusions and implications
This study aimed to explore the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA in the EFL context. The findings shed light on the interconnectedness of these constructs and their implications for language learners. Several key conclusions emerged from the study. First, the results indicated a positive correlation between growth mindset and L2 grit. This result underscores the importance of fostering the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and perseverance. Language learners who embrace a growth mindset are more likely to exhibit higher levels of grit, manifesting passion and determination to achieve their long-term language learning goals. Second, the study revealed a direct impact of L2 grit on FLA. Learners who demonstrate higher levels of grit tend to experience more favorable outcomes in L2 learning. The persistence and sustained effort displayed by individuals with high levels of grit contribute to their success in overcoming challenges and setbacks, resulting in their improved L2 achievement. Significantly, the study identified L2 grit as a mediating factor between growth mindset and FLA. This mediation effect suggests that growth mindset impacts FLA indirectly through its influence on grit. In other words, learners who possess a growth mindset are more likely to show elevated levels of grit, which, in turn, foster FLA. This finding underscores the critical role of nurturing both growth mindset and grit throughout the process of L2 learning. Overall, these findings deepen our understanding of the interplay between growth mindset, L2 grit, self-efficacy, and FLA in the context of foreign language learning. They emphasize the importance of promoting the belief that intelligence is not fixed and that effort, perseverance, and one’s belief in one’s abilities are fundamental to success in language learning. Furthermore, the findings underscore the need to cultivate grit in language learners as it directly impacts students’ language achievement outcomes.
The findings of this study can serve as a basis for significant implications for language educators, practitioners, and policy-makers concerned with enhancing L2 learning experiences and outcomes. Through both theoretical and empirical insights, this research sheds light on the interplay of self-efficacy, growth mindset, L2 grit, and FLA, providing valuable guidance for educational practices and pedagogical interventions in this domain. Language educators and instructors can effectively translate the insights gleaned from this study into concrete interventions that promote growth mindset beliefs and foster grit in language learners. One promising approach involves incorporating growth mindset principles into classroom activities and discussions. For instance, educators can integrate explicit messages about the malleability of language learning abilities, emphasizing that proficiency can be enhanced through dedicated effort and practice. Furthermore, educators can implement goal-setting activities that encourage learners to set specific, achievable language learning objectives. By breaking down larger language learning goals into manageable milestones, students can experience a sense of accomplishment and recognize the progress they are making. This process not only reinforces growth mindset beliefs but also nurtures the development of grit. Moreover, providing constructive feedback that emphasizes effort, strategies, and progress rather than fixed abilities can significantly impact learners’ mindset and perseverance. Encouraging a growth-focused dialogue in the classroom fosters an environment where students feel empowered to take ownership of their learning journey. In addition, incorporating reflective practices, such as journaling or self-assessment exercises, allows learners to track their progress over time. This self-awareness can boost their confidence in their own capacity for improvement and strengthen their determination. Educators, through fostering a supportive and growth-focused learning atmosphere, play a crucial part in nurturing students’ self-belief and sense of control over their learning process. These foundational beliefs serve as the cornerstone for cultivating grit, as learners who possess growth mindset are inherently predisposed to demonstrate unwavering perseverance and sustain dedicated effort throughout their language learning process.
The identification of L2 grit as a mediating factor in the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, and FLA opens up avenues for tailored interventions. Educational programs can be designed to concurrently address both growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit, recognizing the interconnected nature of these constructs. By cultivating growth mindset and self-efficacy beliefs as well as fostering grit in a complementary manner, educators can create a synergistic effect that not only positively influences FLA but also enhances overall language learning experiences. One effective approach to cultivating these attributes in a complementary manner is through targeted interventions and classroom practices. For instance, educators can incorporate growth mindset principles into their teaching by promoting the idea that intelligence and language proficiency can be developed through effort, learning from mistakes, and perseverance. This can be reinforced through regular feedback that focuses on effort and strategies rather than fixed abilities (Dweck, 2017). Simultaneously, fostering self-efficacy beliefs can involve providing learners with opportunities to set achievable language learning goals, monitoring their progress, and acknowledging their successes along the way (Zimmerman, 2000). By gradually increasing the complexity of tasks and challenges, educators can help learners build their confidence in their language learning abilities. To nurture grit, educators can encourage a growth-oriented mindset while emphasizing the importance of long-term goals. They can introduce deliberate practice techniques that require learners to persistently work on challenging language tasks, progressively enhancing their skills and resilience (Duckworth et al., 2007). Additionally, educators can instill the value of passion and dedication in achieving fluency in the target language.
Moreover, the positive association between L2 grit and FLA underscores the importance of acknowledging non-cognitive factors in language education. While traditional L2 instruction predominantly focuses on linguistic skills, this study emphasizes the necessity of integrating socio-psychological aspects into the curricula. By prioritizing the development of grit alongside language proficiency, it is possible to embrace a more holistic approach, which can result in improved language learning outcomes and heightened learner satisfaction.
Despite the valuable insights gained from this study, it is important to acknowledge several limitations that warrant further research and refinement of the findings. First, the study relied on self-report measures to assess growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA. While self-report measures are commonly used in research, they are susceptible to potential biases, including social desirability and response bias. Future studies could consider incorporating objective measures or multiple data sources, such as teacher ratings or performance-based assessments, to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings. Second, it is crucial to recognize that the study was conducted within a specific educational context and with a particular sample of language learners. Therefore, caution should be exercised when generalizing the findings to other populations or settings. Different cultural backgrounds, educational systems, and language learning contexts may influence the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA. Replicating the study with diverse samples and in different contexts would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships. Third, the cross-sectional design of the study limits our ability to establish causality. While the findings suggest relationships between growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA, it is important to consider the possibility of reverse causality or the presence of other confounding variables. Longitudinal studies that track individuals’ mindset, self-efficacy, grit, and achievement over time are needed to provide stronger evidence for establishing causal relationships. Fourth, the study focused on a specific set of variables (growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA) and did not take into account other potentially relevant factors that may contribute to language learning outcomes. Variables such as motivation, language aptitude, learning strategies, and socio-cultural factors could provide additional insights into FLA. Future research could explore the interplay of these additional factors and their influence on the relationships examined in this study. Fifth, the reliance on a single measurement point for assessing growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA limits our understanding of their temporal dynamics. Changes in mindset, grit, self-efficacy, or achievement over time may have important implications for language learning. Future studies could employ multiple measurement points to capture potential fluctuations and developmental trajectories of these constructs.
In addition, although our study primarily focused on exploring the mediating role of L2 grit between self-efficacy and growth mindset in the context of FLA, future research endeavors may consider investigating the direct correlations and interactions between self-efficacy and growth mindset to provide a more comprehensive understanding of their relationships and potential combined effects on language learning outcomes.
Lastly, the study did not investigate potential moderators or mediators of the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA. Factors such as age, language proficiency, and instructional approaches may moderate or mediate these relationships. Exploring these potential moderating or mediating factors would provide a more nuanced understanding of the underlying mechanisms driving the observed relationships. Addressing these limitations and conducting further research will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics between growth mindset, self-efficacy, L2 grit, and FLA, enhancing the applicability and robustness of the findings.
