We investigated how variables that have been studied at the individual level may apply at the group level. Specifically, we examined how the self-reference effect (SRE) and the group-reference effect (GRE) impacted total information recall by examining the difference between interacting groups and nominal groups. Additionally, we also examined how the SRE and GRE might impact upon the recall of shared and unshared information by comparing nominal and interacting groups. Results were supportive for the SRE affecting the total recall of information as well as the recall of shared and unshared information. However, the impact of the GRE on group recall was mixed. Theoretical and applied implications are considered.
Anderson, N.H. (1968). Likableness ratings of 555 personality-trait words . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 272—279.
2.
Basden, B.H., Basden, D.R., Bryner, S., & Thomas, R.L. (1997). A comparison of group and individual remembering: Does collaboration disrupt retrieval strategies?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 23, 1176—1189.
3.
Biernat, M., Vescio, T.K., & Green, M.L. (1996). Selective self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1194—1209.
4.
Brewer, M.B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 480—491). New York: Guilford .
5.
Caspi, A., & Herbener, E.S. (1990). Continuity and change: Assortative marriage and the consistency of personality in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 250—258.
6.
Clark, N.K., & Stephenson, G.M. (1989). Group remembering. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), Psychology of group influence (pp. 357—391). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7.
Clark, N.K., Stephenson, G.M., & Kniveton, B.H. (1990). Social remembering: Quantitative aspects of individual and collaborative remembering by police officers and students. British Journal of Psychology, 81, 73—94.
8.
Craik, F.I.M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of ExperimentalPsychology: General , 104, 268—294.
9.
Diehl, M., & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Toward the solution of a riddle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 497—509.
10.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117—140.
11.
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Vevea, J., & Iuzzini, J. (2002). The `I', the `we', and the `when': A meta-analysis of motivational primacy in self-definition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 574—591.
12.
Geen, R.G. (1989). Alternative conceptions of social facilitation . In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), Psychology of group influence (pp. 15—51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
13.
Greitemeyer, T., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2003). Preference-consistent evaluation of information in the hidden profile paradigm: Beyond group-level explanations for the dominance of shared information in group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 322—339.
14.
Hartwick, J., Sheppard, B.H., & Davis, J.H., (1982). Group remembering: Research and implications. In R. A. Guzzo (Ed.), Improving group decision making in organizations (pp. 41—72). New York : Academic Press.
15.
Hinsz, V.B. (1990). Cognitive and consensus processes in group recognition memory performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59, 705—718.
16.
Hinsz, V.B., Tindale, R.S., & Vollrath, D.A. (1997). The emerging conceptualization of groups as information processors. Psychological Bulletin,121, 43—64.
17.
Hogg, M.A. (2003). Social identity. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 462—479). New York: Guilford.
18.
Johnson, C., Gadon, O., Carlson, D., Southwick, S., Faith, M., & Chalfin, J. (2002). Self-reference and group membership: Evidence for a group-reference effect. European Journal of Social Psychology , 32, 261—274.
19.
Karau, S.J., & Williams, K.D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology65, 681—706.
20.
Klein, S.B., & Kihlstrom, J.F. (1986). Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 115, 26—38.
21.
Klein, S.B., & Loftus, J. (1988). The nature of self-referent encoding: The contributions of elaborative and organizational processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 5—11.
22.
Rogers, T.B., Kuiper, N.A., & Kirker, W.S., (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677—688.
23.
Schneider, B., Goldstein, H.W., & Smith, D.B. (1995). The ASA framework: An update. Personnel Psychology, 48, 747—773.
24.
Skowronski, J.J., Betz, A.L., Thompson, C.P., & Shannon, L. (1991). Social memory in everyday life: The recall of self-events and other-events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 831—843.
25.
Stasser, G., & Titus, W. (1987). Effects of information load and percentage of shared information on the dissemination of unshared information during group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 81—93.
26.
Stasser, G., & Titus, W. (2003). Hidden profiles: A brief history. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 304—313.
27.
Steiner, I.D. (1972). Group processes and productivity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
28.
Stephenson, G.M., Clark, N.K., & Wade, G.S. (1986). Meetings make evidence? An experimental study of collaborative and individual recall of a simulated police interrogation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1113—1122.
29.
Stewart, D.D. (1998). Stereotypes, negativity bias, and the discussion of unshared information in decision-making groups. Small Group Research, 29, 643—668.
30.
Stewart, D.D., & Stasser, G. (1995). Expert role assignment and information sampling during collective recall and decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 619—629.
31.
Stewart, D.D., & Stewart, C.B. (2001). Group recall: The picture-superiority effect with shared and unshared information. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 5, 48—56.
32.
Stewart, D.D., Stewart, C.B., Tyson, C., Vinci, G., & Fioti, T. (2004). Serial position effects and the picture-superiority effect in the group recall of unshared information. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 8, 166—181.
33.
Symons, C.S., & Johnson, B.T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin,121, 371—394.
34.
Tindale, R.S., & Sheffey, S. (2002). Shared information, cognitive load, and group memory. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 5, 5—18.
35.
Vollrath, D.A., Sheppard, B.H., Hinsz, V.B., & Davis, J.H. (1989). Memory performance by decision-making groups and individuals. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 43, 289—300.
36.
Wegner, D.M. (1986). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B. Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of group behavior (pp. 185—208). New York: Springer-Verlag .
37.
Wegner, D.M., Erber, R., & Raymond, P. (1991). Transactive memory in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 923—929.
38.
Weldon, M.S. (2001) Remembering as a social process. In D. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 40, pp. 67—120). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
39.
Weldon, M.S., & Bellinger, K.D. (1997). Collective memory: Collaborative and individual processes in remembering. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning , Memory and Cognition, 23, 1160—1175.
40.
Weldon, M.S., Blair, C., & Huebsch, P.D. (2000). Group remembering: Does social loafing underlie collaborative inhibition?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26, 1568—1577.
41.
Wittenbaum, G.M., Hollingshead, A.B., & Botero, I.C. (2004). From cooperative to motivated information sharing in groups: Moving beyond the hidden profile paradigm. Communication Monographs, 71, 286—310.
42.
Wood, J.V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin,106, 231—248.
