What effects do interest groups have on the democratization and legitimacy of the European Union (EU)? Interest groups can democratize the EU only to the extent that they do not replicate inequalities. We use a newly constructed database to look for inequalities: Are the big organizations in Brussels the same as the ones in the EU member states? Are some member states' lobbies more active than others? And does the structure of EU lobbying create insiders and outsiders itself? We find representative biases in favor of powerful incumbents, groups from some member states and wellresourced groups.
Baer, Walter (2001) `How to Involve Citizens in Health Policy Development and Implementation? Current Activities of the European Community', paper presented at the European Health Forum Gastein 26-29 September 2001, Bad Gastein, Austria.
2.
Bartolini, Stefano (2005) Restructuring Europe: Centre Formation, System Building and Political Structuring between the Nation-State and the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3.
Baumgartner, Frank. R. and Beth L. Leech (1998) Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
4.
Bellamy, Richard and Dario Castiglione (2004) `Normative Theory and the EU: Legitimising the Euro-Polity', in L. Trägårdh (ed.) After National Democracy: Rights, Law and Power in America and the New Europe, pp. 9-40. Oxford: Hart.
5.
Beyers, Jan (2002) `Gaining and Seeking Access: The European Adaptation of Domestic Interest Associations', European Journal of Political Research41: 585-612.
6.
Beyers, Jan and Bart Kerremans (2007) `Critical Resource Dependencies and the Europeanization of Domestic Interest Groups', Journal of European Public Policy14(3): 460-81.
7.
Beyers, Jan, Rainer Eising and William Maloney (2007) `"Much We Study, Little We Know?" The Study of Interest Group Politics in Europe and Elsewhere', unpublished manuscript.
8.
Bouwen, Pieter (2004) `The Logic of Access to the European Parliament: Business Lobbying in the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs', Journal of Common Market Studies42(3): 473-95.
9.
Brodscheid, Andreas and David Coen (2003) `Insider and Outsider Lobbying of the European Commission: An Informational Model of Forum Politics', European Union Politics4(2): 165-91.
10.
Brodscheid, Andreas and David Coen (2007) `Lobbying Activity and Fora Creation in the EU: Empirically Exploring the Nature of the Policy Good', Journal of European Public Policy14(3): 346-65.
11.
Cameron, A. Colin. and Pravin K. Trivedi (1998) Regression Analysis of Count Data. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12.
CIA World Factbook (2007) URL (accessed 2 March 2008): https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html .
13.
Clergeau, Christophe (2005) `European Food Safety Policies: Between a Single Market and a Political Crisis', in Monika Steffen (ed.) The Governance of Health in Europe, pp. 113-33. London: Routledge.
14.
Coen, David (1997) `The Evolution of the Large Firm as a Political Actor in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy4(1): 91-108.
15.
Coen, David (2007) `Empirical and Theoretical Studies in EU Lobbying' , Journal of European Public Policy14(3): 333-45.
16.
Coen, David and Charles Dannreuther (2003) `Differentiated Europeanization: Large and Small Firms in the EU Policy Process', in Kevin Featherstone and Claudio Radaelli (eds) The Politics of Europeanization, pp. 255-77. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
17.
Cram, Laura (2001) `Governance "to Go": Domestic Actors, Institutions and the Boundaries of the Possible', Journal of Common Market Studies39(4): 595-618.
18.
Dür, Andreas and Dirk De Bièvre (2007) `The Question of Interest Group Influence', Journal of Public Policy27(1): 1-12.
19.
Eising, Rainer (2003) `Interest Groups: Opportunity Structures and Governance Capacity', in Kenneth Dyson and Klaus H. Goetz (eds) Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint, pp. 147-72. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
20.
Eising, Rainer (2007) `Institutional Context, Organizational Resources and Strategic Choices', European Union Politics8(3): 329-62.
21.
Eising, Rainer (forthcoming 2008) `The Access of Business Interests to EU Political Institutions: Towards Elite Pluralism?', in David Coen and Jeremy J. Richardson (eds) Lobbying in the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
22.
European Public Affairs Directory (2007) European Public Affairs Directory. Brussels: Landmarks.
23.
Fairbrass, Jenny (2003) `The Europeanization of Business Interest Representation: UK and French Firms Compared', Comparative European Politics1: 313-34.
24.
Farrell, Anne-Marie (2005) `The Emergence of EU Governance in Public Health: The Case of Blood Policy and Regulation', in Monika Steffen (ed.) Health Governance in Europe, pp. 134-51. London: Routledge.
25.
Føllesdal, Andreas and Simon Hix (2005) `Why There Is a Democratic Deficit in the EU: A Response to Majone and Moravcsik', European Governance Papers (EUROGOV) No. C-05-02.
26.
Gelman, Andrew and Jennifer Hill (2007) Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
27.
Greenwood, Justin (2002) `Advocacy, Influence and Persuasion: Has It All Been Overdone?', in A. Warleigh and J. Fairbrass (eds) Influence and Interests in the EuropeanUnion: The New Politics of Persuasion and Advocacy, pp. 19-34. London : Europa.
28.
Greenwood, Justin (2003) Interest Representation in the European Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
29.
Greer, Scott. L. (2006) `Uninvited Europeanization: Neofunctionalism and the EU in Health Policy', Journal of European Public Policy13(1): 134-52.
30.
Greer, Scott. L. (2008a) `Choosing Paths in European Union Health Policy: A Political Analysis of a Critical Juncture', Journal of European Social Policy18(3).
31.
Greer, Scott. L. (2008b) `The Changing World of European Health Lobbies' , in David Coen and Jeremy J. Richardson (eds) Lobbying in the European Union . Oxford: Oxford University Press .
32.
Hervey, Tamara K. and Jean V. McHale (2004) Health Law and the European Union. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33.
Heston, Alan, Robert Summers and Bettina Aten (2006) Penn World Table Version 6.2. Center for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the University of Pennsylvania, September.
34.
Jarman, Holly (2008) `The Other Side of the Coin: Knowledge, NGOs and EU Trade Policy', Politics28(1): 26-32.
35.
Jeffery, Charlie and Rosanne Palmer (2007) `The European Union, Devolution and Power', in A. Trench (ed.) Devolution and Power in the United Kingdom, pp. 218-38. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
36.
Lovecy, Jill (1999) `Governance Transformation in the Professional Services Sector: A Case of Market Integration "by the Back Door"?', in B. Kohler-Koch and R. Eising (eds) The Transformation of Governance in the European Union, pp. 135-51. New York: Routledge .
37.
Mahoney, Christina (2004) `The Power of Institutions: State and Interest Group Activity in theEuropean Union', European Union Politics5(4): 441-66.
38.
Mahoney, Christina (2005) `Advocacy in the United States and the European Union', PhD thesis, Department of Political Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
39.
Mazey, Sonia and Jeremy J. Richardson (eds) (1993) Lobbying in the European Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40.
Mazey, Sonia and Jeremy J. Richardson (1995) `Promiscuous Policymaking: The European Policy Style?', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey (eds) The State of the European Union: Building a European Polity?, Vol. 3, pp. 337-59. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
41.
Mazey, Sonia and Jeremy J. Richardson (2006) `The Commission and the Lobby', in David Spence (ed.) The European Commission, pp. 279-92. London: John Harper .
42.
Michalowitz, Irina (2004) `Analysing Structured Paths of Lobbying Behaviour: Why Discussing the Involvement of "Civil Society" Does Not Solve the EU's Democratic Deficit', Journal of European Integration26(2): 145-70.
43.
Michalowitz, Irina (2007) `What Determines Influence? Assessing Conditions for Decision-Making Influence of Interest Groups in the EU', Journal of European Public Policy14(1): 132-51.
44.
Mossialos, Elias and Martin McKee (eds) (2004) EU Law and the Social Character of Health Care. Brussels: Peter Lang.
45.
Mossialos, Elias, Govin Permanand , Rita Baeten and Tamara K. Hervey (eds) (2008) Health Systems Governance in Europe: The Role of EU Law and Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
46.
Schattschneider, E.E. (1960[1975]) The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America. Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press.
47.
Schmidt, Vivien (2006) Democracy in Europe: The EU and National Polities . Oxford: Oxford University Press .
48.
Schneider, Gerald and Konstantin Baltz (2003) `The Power of Specialization: How Interest Groups Influence EU Legislation', Rivista di Politica Economica93 (Jan-Feb): 1-31.
49.
Schneider, Gerald, Daniel Finke and Konstantin Baltz (2007) `With a Little Help from the State: Interest Intermediation in the Domestic Pre-negotiations of EU Legislation', Journal of European Public Policy14(3): 444-59.
50.
Smismans, Stijn (ed.) (2006) Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance. Cheltenham : Edward Elgar.
51.
Steffen, Monika (ed.) (2005) The Governance of Health in Europe. London: Routledge.
52.
Van Schendelen, Rinus (2002) Machiavelli in Brussels: The Art of Lobbying the EU, 2nd edn. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
53.
Wessels, Bernhard (2004) `Contestation Potential of Interest Groups in the EU: Emergence, Structure, and Political Alliances', in Gary Marks and Marco R. Steenbergen (eds) European Integration and Political Conflict, pp. 195-215. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
54.
Woll, Cornelia (2006) `Lobbying in the European Union: From sui generis to a Comparative Perspective', Journal of European Public Policy13(3): 456-69.
55.
Woll, Cornelia (forthcoming 2008) `Trade Policy Lobbying in the European Union: Who Captures Whom?', in David Coen and Jeremy J. Richardson (eds) Lobbying in the European Union: Institutions, Actors and Issues. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
56.
Zimmer, Christina, G. Schneider and Michael Dobbins (2005) `The Contested Council: Conflict Dimensions of an Intergovernmental EU Institution', Political Studies53: 403-22.