Teacher leadership for professional development in a networked learning community: A Chinese case study

Abstract

Educators worldwide are engaged in efforts to improve teaching and learning through teachers’ collaborations in learning communities and networks. Teacher leadership has played a crucial role in such communities or networks. This study focused on a teacher professional development program in mainland China, the Master Teacher Studio, in which a group of teachers from different schools learn from a master teacher. The study explored how the master teacher enacted leadership strategies to facilitate participants’ professional development and how the community can develop sustainably. Through a qualitative case study analysis, the study summarizes five major strategies, namely, establishing a shared value and specific goals, structuring through rules and collaboration, developing people by scaffolding and allocating resources, bridging internal and external social capital, and sustaining the community through leadership virtues and role modeling. The results show that teacher leaders in Chinese contexts adopt a combination of multiple strategies to achieve a dynamic balance depending on the developmental stage of the community and members’ dynamic needs. Teachers lead the community through an integration of their administrative, professional, and moral leadership. Implications for teacher leadership in communities are further discussed.

Keywords

Teacher leadership professional development networked learning community Chinese context

Introduction

Educators in many nations are engaged in improving the quality of teaching through teachers’ collaboration, as evidence has shown that teachers’ professional learning communities (PLCs) can enhance both teacher and student learning (Vangrieken et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2021a). There are various types of PLCs, such as the whole school model, the within school model, and the across school model (Harris et al., 2018). A majority of current studies about PLCs focus on the school level or department level as the unit of analysis (Harris et al., 2018; Russell et al., 2017). Scholars have noted that the “school as a unit has become too small and isolated to provide scope for professional development for teachers in a knowledge rich and networked world” (Jackson and Temperley, 2007: 45), and there has been an increasing focus on school networks, alliances, or partnerships as means to facilitate teachers’ professional development across schools (Hopkins et al., 2014; Wang and Wong, 2021).

Networks of teachers have been practiced in many nations, such as networked PLCs in Europe (Katz and Earl, 2010; Prenger et al., 2019) and networked improvement communities (Lieberman et al., 2017; Russell et al., 2017) in North America and other countries (Boylan, 2018; Harris et al., 2018). Although various terms were used, these programs attempt to facilitate teachers’ development through a wider range of interactions with external educators or institutions (Harris et al., 2018; Lieberman et al., 2017). Networks can mobilize a wider range of resources and expertise than single schools and provide greater opportunities for both self-reflection and collective reflection on practice (Lieberman et al., 2017; Prenger et al., 2019).

Researchers remind us that well-structured communities or networks do not guarantee teachers’ authentic and effective professional development (Harris et al., 2018; Stoll et al., 2018). Critical challenges have been addressed regarding networked PLCs or intraschool collaborations, such as the infrastructure for collaborations in multiple communities, the structural arrangement for time, facilitating joint work among stakeholders with different backgrounds and traditions, and the sustainable development of communities or networks (Katz and Earl, 2010; Prenger et al., 2019; Coburn and Russell, 2008; Russell et al., 2017). An effective networked learning community (NLC), similar to school-level PLCs, needs appropriate leadership (Jackson and Temperley, 2007; Stoll et al., 2018). Teacher leaders are crucial to address the above challenges (Boylan, 2018; Harris et al., 2018; Katz and Earl, 2010; Lieberman et al., 2017). Although many studies have focused on teacher leadership within schools (Wenner and Campbell, 2017; York and Barr, 2004), teachers can also assume leadership at the district and state levels. For example, leaders such as district coordinators and coaches are crucial for bringing change at the district and system levels (Boylan, 2018; Harris et al., 2018).

The study reports a Chinese case of a newly emergent teacher PD program in mainland China, the Master Teacher Studio (MTS). A Master Teacher (MT) is selected and appointed by the local government to run the MTS. An MT is usually a famous and expert teacher in a subject; approximately 10–15 teachers from different schools are recruited in the MTS (Zheng et al.,, 2021b; Zhu and Pei, 2017). The aim of the program is to enable excellent teachers to broaden their influence to include other teachers and other schools but with a clear focus on teaching and learning. The MTS program is initiated and authorized by the government at different levels (i.e. district, municipal, and provincial). Teachers collaborate with participants from different schools toward a common goal that is directed by an MT, and, thus, the MTS is considered a “networked learning community” (Zheng et al., 2021b; Zhu and Pei, 2017). It aims to improve teachers’ continuous development in a network through the leadership of an MT. This study attempts to address the following research question: How do teacher leaders enact strategies to facilitate the participants’ PD in the networked learning community and sustain the community?

This study is grounded in a conceptual framework that draws on concepts from basic leadership practices (Day et al., 2011; Leithwood et al., 2019) and teacher leadership practice (Wenner and Campbell, 2017; York and Barr, 2004). The study attempts to address research gaps. First, it focuses on teachers’ learning networks at the across-school level and explores how teacher leadership is enacted to enhance teachers’ PD. Second, an enduring challenge for communities or networks concerns their sustainable development (Harris et al., 2018; Turner et al., 2018). The study explores how an NLC was sustainably constructed and developed. Third, the study analyzes teacher leadership in a Chinese context, where cultures and contexts are distinct from those explored in previous studies of Anglo-American contexts. Wenner and Campbell (2017) suggest that future research should further explore how teacher leadership is enacted, especially when teacher leaders are situated in unique contexts, and in what ways such contextual factors shape the enactment of teacher leadership.

Literature review

Teachers’ PD in networked learning communities

Educators have witnessed the power of PLCs in shaping teacher development and student learning across many countries in recent decades (Jensen et al., 2016; Vangrieken et al., 2015). Harris et al. (2018) distinguished three models of PLCs: the whole school model, within school model, and across school model. All three models of PLCs have their merits in improving teachers’ professional and student learning if they can be properly constructed and enacted (Stoll et al. 2018; Vangrieken et al., 2017). The increasing complexity of a fast-changing world has presented new challenges to schools that are too great for any one school to address alone (Pregener et al. 2019; Stoll et al., 2018). Previous studies on PLCs mainly focus on the school level (Vangrieken et al. 2015). Across-school PLCs and NLCs have been relatively less explored.

However, teachers’ learning network practice has a long history. For example, the National Writing Project (NWP) in the US was considered a successful professional development network (Lieberman and Wood, 2002; Lieberman and Mace, 2009). Teachers learn from one another and constantly think about how particular strategies can be adapted to suit their particular students; in addition, they learn “by presenting their own practice, by listening to others, by being a good community member, and by taking risks together” (Lieberman and Wood 2002: 301). England’s National College for School Leadership initiated the Networked Learning Communities program, which involved 137 networks (1500 schools) between 2002 and 2006 and was shown to improve teaching practices and pupil achievement (Katz and Earl, 2010; Jackson and Temperley, 2007).

For Chinese teachers, their PD occurs in a nested and networked structure. An individual teacher is nested in a subject-based teaching research group (TRG), and TRGs are nested in a specific school. Thus, the system for teacher development can be described as a networked multilevel PD system that supports teacher learning at the school, district, municipal, and provincial levels (Tsui and Wong, 2009). Two types of teacher PD activities can be categorized in the Chinese context: within-school and out-of-school activities (Zheng et al., 2019). School-based PD activities are common and have been institutionalized into every teacher’s daily work (Wang et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2019). Not every teacher has the opportunity to learn outside, which depends on one’s intention and selection by the school (Tsui and Wong, 2009; Wang et al., 2017).

There is a tradition for teachers learning from more experienced or capable teachers in China (Tsui and Wong, 2009; Zheng et al., 2019). Within school, mentor-novice schemes are a common practice in schools and the mentors facilitate new teachers becoming familiar with their schools’ regulations and learning and mastering the instructional routine and core practices (Wang et al., 2017). After novice teachers become more experienced, they have the opportunity to participate in higher-level PD activities outside school. Thus, teachers have the opportunity to learn from more capable and experienced experts (Jensen et al., 2016; Tsui and Wong, 2009). MTS offers such a chance for these teachers to learn from a more capable mentor.

MTS is a typical out-of-school PD program that has been popular over the past decade (Zeng and Lo, 2022). Multiple levels (i.e. district, municipal, and provincial) of MTSs are initiated and governed by different levels of government. The duration of an MTS is usually more than three years, which is different from a one-time workshop. The MTSs are sponsored by the local government and are required to take responsibility for three aspects: conducting research projects, improving participants’ teaching abilities, and training teachers from the district. Programs similar to the Chinese MTS have existed in other countries (e.g. Malaysia, the Philippines, and England) despite the use of diverse terms such as “expert teacher,” “excellent teacher,” and “accomplished teachers” (Bush et al., 2016; Lieberman and Mace, 2009). These programs are designed to support excellent teachers as leaders to contribute to the professional growth of others. Thus, MTs function as teacher leaders by definition (Wenner and Campbell, 2017; York-Barr and Duke, 2004). Teachers can also learn from their peers in the community, despite their different backgrounds.

Teacher leadership in multiple communities

Successful learning communities depend on conditions including shared and supportive leadership, time and space, and relationships based on trust (Stoll et al., 2018; Vangrieken et al., 2015). Leithwood et al. (2020: 7) claimed that “almost all successful leaders draw on the same repertoire of basic leadership practices,” and these practices include setting directions, building relationships and developing people, redesigning the organization to support desired practices, and improving the instructional program.

In the past few decades, teacher leadership has gained much attention as an important aspect of school leadership, and researchers have concluded that teacher leaders have the capacity to lead the school by increasing teacher collaboration, spreading best practices, encouraging teacher professional learning, offering assistance with differentiation, and focusing on content-specific issues (Wenner and Campbell, 2017; York-Barr and Duke, 2004). York-Barr and Duke’s (2004: 287–288) literature review from 1980 to 2004 defined teacher leadership as “the process by which teachers, individually or collectively influence their colleagues, principals and other members of school communities to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increase student learning and achievement.” They further summarized the dimensions of teacher leadership practice, specifically, coordination and management, school or district curriculum work, the PD of colleagues, participation in school change/improvement, parent and community involvement, contributions to the profession, and preservice teacher education. Wenner and Campbell (2017) conducted a comprehensive review of empirical studies on teacher leadership since 2004, and they concluded that teacher leadership focuses on roles beyond the classroom, such as supporting the professional learning of peers, influencing policy/decision making, and ultimately targeting student learning.

Many current studies have focused on teacher leadership within school contexts by focusing on the school or department level (Vangrieken et al., 2015; Zheng et al., 2021a). Teacher leadership within schools, such as departmental and middle leadership, plays key role in effective PLCs (Turner et al., 2018; Vangrieken et al., 2015). Teachers may also assume leadership at the district, system, and state levels. Teacher leaders such as coordinators, coaches, and curriculum specialists at the district level have risen because of their exemplary teaching skills to now facilitate PD for teachers across the district (Wenner and Campbell, 2017). For example, at the district level, Olivier et al. (2018) found that teacher leaders became the conduit for all the studied district’s improvement efforts. They were proactive in promoting a sense of shared responsibility for all staff and student learning; they collaborated with school leaders and continuously monitored progress to maintain a focus on the alignment of district and school visions, goals, and objectives.

Networked learning communities include many levels of leadership—both formal and informal. Networks have different forms of leadership to direct the work of the network itself, which usually coexists with the leadership of principals/headteachers/middle leaders within and across schools (Katz and Earl, 2010; Stoll et al., 2018). Challenges also exist in interorganizational networks, for example, achieving consensus and commitment to shared goals, cultural clashes and competing institutional logics, and coordination fatigue (Russell et al., 2017). Studies have revealed that teacher leaders act as change agents, central actors, and influential brokers of advice and information, and they forge connections with central offices (Stoll et al., 2018). In networks, organizational and professional boundaries have become more porous (Boylan, 2018; Prenger et al., 2019). Teacher leaders who act as boundary spanners can forge links between schools and facilitate knowledge sharing among different actors (Katz and Earl, 2010; Spillane et al., 2015). Teacher leadership behaviors such as setting the agenda for development, interacting with peers, and considering teachers’ responses to pedagogical challenges are crucial for systematic improvement (Boylan, 2018). Katz and Earl (2010) also emphasized the role of formal leaders in stimulating vision and focus, providing support (intellectual and instrumental), monitoring development, disseminating information, and buffering schools and networks from challenges posed by the larger environment (Katz and Earl, 2010).

In summary, studies have shown multiple and complex roles, identities, and strategies concerning teacher leadership in communities at different levels, as they are conducted in different contexts. Effective teacher leadership practices rely on a series of factors, such as political support, trust, and expert facilitation (Harris et al., 2018), and these practices follow basic leadership practices, such as setting directions, developing people, building relationships, and redesigning organizations (Leithwood et al., 2020). Boylan (2018: 89) argued that “there are few accounts specifically focused on teachers as professional development leaders, particularly in the context of interschool activity.” Thus, this study integrates basic leadership practices (Leithwood et al., 2020) and the teacher leadership literature (York and Barr, 2004; Wenner and Campbell, 2017) to examine how MTs enact leadership to facilitate PD and the sustainable development of the networked learning community in a Chinese context.

Research methodology

Context of the study

This study investigated a three-year PD program in which a group of teachers participated in an MTS in a large city (Z) in a southern province of China. In 2011, the Z Municipal Education Bureau launched the MTS program. MTs were selected based on a number of standards; for example, an MT must have taught more than 8 years, he or she must be at least a municipal backbone teacher (gugan jiaoshi^①), and he or she should have won a provincial teaching competition prize and published a research article over the past five years.

In January 2012, 28 MTSs were officially established in Z and 28 MTs were formally appointed by the government as the leaders of their MTSs. MTSs are located in the schools where MTs work. Each MTS recruited 10–15 subject teachers from different schools. Some MTs tended to recruit teachers from the same subject, while other MTs recruited different subject teachers, which was totally the MT’s decision. The Education Bureau provided financial support for the MTSs and empowered the MTs with professional autonomy. The midterm and final assessments were conducted by a group of experts chosen by the Education Bureau. In late 2014, the first group of MTSs was evaluated, among which only three MTSs were rated as “excellent” and the other MTSs were evaluated as “qualified.”

Participants in the study

The methodology of an embedded case study (Yin, 2009) was used in this study. Using a purposive sampling strategy, this study selected two cases from the 28 MTSs. These two MTSs began in approximately 2012. They were selected because (1) they were evaluated by the Education Bureau as “excellent” studios in the first round of the project, and (2) teachers reported that they had gained much professional growth (e.g. publishing journal articles and/or book chapters and winning teaching prizes) in these MTSs. In total, two MTs (Ben and Laura) and 13 teachers from nine schools were involved in this study. Table 1 shows the background information of the participants.

Table 1.

Background information of the participants in the study.

Studio no.	Name (pseudonym)	Gender	Years of teaching	Main subject	School type/school no.
Master Teacher Studio 1	Ben/Master teacher	Male	29	Chemistry	High school/Teaching research officer
	Hank	Male	27	Mathematics	Middle school/S1
	Kate	Female	19	Mathematics	Primary school/S2
	Berry	Female	24	Chinese	Primary school/S2
	Holley	Female	10	Chemistry	High school/S3
	Wendy	Female	9	Geography	High school/S3
	Jenifer	Female	26	English	Middle school/S1
Master Teacher Studio 2	Laura/Master teacher	Female	21	History	High school/S4
	Clare	Female	20	History	High school/S5
	Leo	Male	15	History	High school/S6
	Jim	Male	15	History	High school/S7
	Felton	Male	12	History	High school/S4
	Phoebe	Female	19	History	High school/S4
	Jen	Female	8	History	High school/S8
	Mona	Female	3	History	High school/S4

Data collection and analysis

Multiple sources of data were included in this study, such as in-depth interviews, field observations, and documents (i.e. teachers’ self-reflection journals, blogs, and published articles). Two rounds of semistructured interviews with different foci were conducted in Chinese. All interviews were carried out face-to-face in a location that was convenient and comfortable for the participants (mainly the schools or the studios), and each interview lasted 60–120 min. The first round of interviews (interview 1) was conducted in early 2014 and generally focused on the participants’ experiences, key events, and interactions with MTs since they had joined the MTSs. This round of interviews concentrated on themes related to teacher leadership dimensions (e.g. setting the direction, designing the organization, and collaboration). Example research questions include “When and why did you join the MTS?,” “How did the MT mentor or guide you?,” and “What impresses you most?” The second round of interviews (interview 2) was conducted a year later (late 2014) when the programs had ended. This round focused more on teachers’ PD gains and changes, and how the MTs and the community influenced their development. Research questions include the following: “Since you joined the MTS, what has been your biggest change?” and “What has caused you to continuously join MTS activities?” During data collection, one of the authors participated in some key activities held by the MTSs, such as open lessons (four lessons in total and two lessons for each MTS) and annual MTS meetings (two meetings in total and one for each MTS). This author also conducted informal interviews (normally 15 min) with the teachers after these activities.

The data were transcribed by the first author and then analyzed through a qualitative inductive process (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The authors read and reread the transcripts to identify commonly emerging themes that reflected teachers’ learning experiences in the MTS. A number of “indigenous concepts” (Patton, 2002), such as “like-minded people with similar goals” and “interpersonal connections resources,” were derived from the participants’ own language, which was further examined in accordance with the theoretical framework. A cross-case comparison (Merriam, 2009) was also conducted to confirm, enrich, and modify the emerging categories, which led to the final interpretation of the data.

Findings

Five major teacher leadership strategies were generated from the data analysis.

Establishing a shared value and specific goals

After the two MTSs were formally established, the participants could voluntarily apply to join different MTSs. To establish a cohesive team, MTs attach importance to member selection. As Ben said,

What is the most important for a good team? It’s selection of the right people. Actually, I carefully examined every applicant. (Ben interview 1)

Almost all participants described their motivation to learn or for “further professional development.” Specifically, most of the participants mentioned their PD needs as “better teaching” (Jen, Clare, Mona, Holley, and Wendy) and/or improving research competence (Hank, Kate, Jenifer, Leo, and Felton). Teaching and research competencies are seen as major aspects of teachers’ capability in China. Some indicators were used to describe teachers’ teaching and research competencies (Zhu and Pei, 2017). For example, students’ achievement and teaching prizes in teaching competition/public lessons at different levels were used to measure a teacher’s teaching competence. For research competence, hosting a research project or publishing articles were seen as important criteria for teacher promotion and school-based annual appraisals (Zheng et al., 2021b). MTs have a richer experience in both teaching and conducting research. MTs can be seen as the symbol of “better teaching” or “research expertise,” which attracted the participants at the beginning. As two teachers said,

MT Laura is a symbol of excellent teaching in our city. I used to imitate her teaching style from her online videos. The MTS offers an opportunity for me to learn from her. (Jen interview 1)

MT Ben is famous for his research on teaching, and he has published some research papers and books. I am not good at doing research; therefore, I got to catch the opportunity to learn from him. (Hank interview 1)

Accordingly, both MTs mentioned that the main reason that they applied to and established the MTS is to “improve participants’ teaching and research competence” and “ultimately improve their students’ learning.” Chinese educators believe that teaching and research mutually influence one another and that conducting research can enhance their understanding of student learning (Zheng et al., 2021b). Therefore, the value of “improving student learning” is achieved through “improving teaching and research competence,” which is the explicit goal. When applying to start an MTS, each MT was required to provide a proposal outlining his or her mission, objectives, research topic, schedule, and planned management of the MTS. For MTS 1, the research topic is Exploring the application of team cooperative learning in compulsory education, which explores teachers’ and students’ attitudes toward cooperative learning (CL) and how to better apply CL in classrooms. The proposed MTS 2 project is Applying formative assessment in high school history teaching. The MT sets topics based on his or her own expertise, and both selected topics echo educational reform trends in China, which stress new ways of teaching or assessing issues. In the first meeting, the MTs communicated the research topic, long-term goal, and action plans. The participants recognized the topics as they are relevant to the teaching practice, and as Holley said, “the research is worthy to do as it is related to the real practical problems we are concerned about.”

Selecting and screening applicants is an important means to establish a team’s shared value. The research topic is the explicit and specific representation of the MTS’s shared value and goals. The participants can quit if they do not agree with the content of the studio. As MT Ben said,

MTS is different from a school; it is not bureaucratic. If members do not like you, disagree with what you do, they have the right to quit. (Ben interview 1)

Those who were recruited and retained in the MTS were “people with similar interests” (zhitong daohe). Then, the MTs set the long-term goals and communicated the short-term goals to the participants. Each participant was required to propose a three-year plan and a working plan for each semester. The long-term goals were decomposed into small and specific targets. As one participant described,

MT Ben told us that we are going to do a municipal research project. We will conduct some investigations and collect data; finally, we will edit a book. Yes, a book! I thought it was an impossible mission! In the following two years, the big mission was decomposed into small targets, and we completed these small targets step-by-step. Now we did it! I could never imagine I would be a part of a book two years ago. (Hank interview 2)

An important step for a community is establishing a shared value and setting a direction (Day et al., 2011; Stoll et al., 2018). Several strategies were used to establish the group’s shared value and goals. The members apply to join the MTS because of the MT’s expertise, their fame and their proposed research topic. By selecting and screening the group members and communicating the research topics and plans, the remaining members were “a liked-minded group of people with similar interests” (Ben, Laura, Hank, Berry, Jen, and Clare). Similar interests denote the participants’ shared value (improving student learning) through improving teaching and research competence. The value and long-term goals run through almost all of the following activities.

Structuring through rules and collaboration

When the group was established and the goals of the MTS were set, the following question arose: how can group members work together toward long-term goals? How can members enhance their relationships, as they are unfamiliar with each other? The leaders began to set rules and collaborative activities. In the early stages, rules pertaining to biweekly meetings, regular reading and writing, monthly reporting, asking for leave less than twice a semester, etc. were strictly implemented. Both MTs mentioned that the rules of the studio mattered. The participants also considered the rules to be important:

For a new group, rules should come before good relationships! The rules help the participants carry out the tasks regularly. Once the rule is loose, people will be loose. (Laura interview 1)

There is a quitting rule in MTS 1. MT Ben explained the following:

Someone quits if he or she has been absent from collective activities more than twice. If one cannot guarantee time with the MTS, he or she is free to quit. (Ben interview 1)

Then, the leader designed the collaboration among members. Task-oriented collaborations were first required by the leader. Later, various collaborations among members were gradually formed. As one participant said,

In our studio, there are teachers with different competences and strengths. At first, he required an experienced teacher to work in a pair with a younger one. The tasks were distributed to each pair. Through the collaboration, we know each other more. (Kate interview 1)

Teachers with different backgrounds will show different perspectives when they cooperate. The leaders thus played a key role in translating the differences based on their expertise. We observed a debate that arose in MTS 1 when the members discussed whether team cooperative learning (TCL) could be adopted in grades 1–2:

Wendy:

Our research scope is compulsory education, so we should include grade 1–9 students, and grade 1–2 students should also be included.

Berry:

I don’t agree. I feel that team TCL is not appropriate for lower grade primary students.

Jenifer:

We may find a way to improve TCL in lower grades.

Kate:

I agree with Kate; when I apply TCL, the classroom is always out of control.

Wendy:

However, we should follow the schedule of the research projects.

(After an approximately 10-min debate) Ben:

Well, I see why we have different perspectives. Wendy and Jenifer teach secondary students; they might not be familiar with primary students. I appreciate their concern for the research projects. Berry and Kate have their concerns, as they have rich experience in primary teaching. As far as I know, according to psychological development theories (e.g. Piaget’s theory), students in grades 1–2 (ages 6–8) can work in pairs, but it is not appropriate for them to collaborate in large teams. They can’t concentrate for very long, and the classroom will be out of control…

Ben:

One more thing I want to add here is that I think such debate is healthy, and we can embrace different perspectives and think about why others think differently. The final decision should be made according to children’s development and learning. What is the eventual purpose of doing research? This helps us better understand and instruct our students.

The above case shows how MTs dealt with such debate in collective activities, and MT Ben later said, “There is always unpredictable debate on MTS activities. I play to the score, and my core concern is how the debate can be beneficial for student learning.” (interview 2)

Later on, when the community members had become familiar with each other, the rules became less strict and more flexible. Collaborations varied among members. Ben and Jen said the following:

The rules were strictly implemented in the beginning. After a year, the rules were flexible. We can negotiate the rules based on everyone’s situations. I don’t use rules to control after we trust each other. (Ben interview 2)

In the second year, I am interested in technology-assisted instruction, so I frequently ask Jim for help, as he is good in this area, even though he is not the assigned partner in the MTS. (Jen interview 2)

To achieve long-term goals, the MTS was structured by rules and collaborations. The rules were distinguished from the administrative rules in schools, and they were relatively flexible. Collaborations were arranged by the leader. When contradictions appeared, the MTs buffered such differences by translating to render the contradictions sources for learning (Akkerman and Bakker, 2011) such that members could further think about improving teaching or student learning through collaboration.

Developing people by scaffolding and allocating resources

As experienced and expert teachers, MTs recognized that teachers join the MTS with diverse needs. Young participants (e.g. Jen, Mona, and Wendy) are more likely to learn to improve their teaching. Experienced teachers (e.g. Hank, Kate, Jenifer, and Clare) mainly hoped to learn to conduct research and publish articles. How can MTs satisfy participants’ different professional needs and develop their competence? As two MTs noted, the basic principle as the two MTs described is “identified each participant’s needs and strengths and provided challenges, resources and opportunities to the right person”. As Hanks said,

I have taught for 27 years and gained many prizes in teaching. However, I am not good at doing research projects and publishing research papers; the MT thus offered me specific guidance, and now, I have my own research projects and papers. (Hank interview 1)

Two main specific strategies adopted by the MTs to develop participants’ continuous development were found, namely, allocating resources and scaffolding. In allocating resources, the leader assigns professional resources or opportunities to participants and encourages them to move out of their comfort zone. As a government-initiated program, an MTS can offer higher-level public lessons and teaching competition opportunities, which are important professional resources for members. For example, Holley said,

MT Ben always provides opportunities or stimulation for us at the right time. I am the youngest teacher in our MTS, so I need to improve my teaching skills. Public lessons are important and effective for improving teaching. MT Ben encouraged me to conduct a municipal-level public lesson on behalf of the studio. This was a rare chance at my school. He and the members helped me polish the lesson, and it turned out successful. (Holley interview 1)

Scaffolding is necessary when participants encounter challenging tasks, and the provision of appropriate scaffolding strategies by the more capable MTs is crucial for participants to cross the knowledge boundary. As Felton described,

I used to be afraid of doing research projects. For these years, MT Laura instructed me how to do research and write a research article step-by-step. For example, when I am confused about the theories, she will explain it to me with practical examples… She always gives me a ladder when I encounter some problems. (Felton interview 2)

Everyone has his or her inertia. If there’s someone to push you, lead you, sometimes blame you, you can learn better. MT Ben always stimulates and helps me at the right time. (Holley interview 1)

In terms of improving teaching or research competency, every participant encountered a different bottleneck. The MTs facilitated the participants’ learning across knowledge boundaries by providing different resources and scaffolding them out of their comfort zone. When the participants encountered problems, the MTs used a series of strategies (e.g. mentoring, face-to-face instruction, providing materials and explanations, etc.) to solve their problems and thus improve their teaching and research competence.

Bridging internal and external social capital

MTs attach importance to connecting the community to broad networks. Two themes relevant to leadership strategies were generated, specifically, bridging internal and external social capital. The two types of social capital in a community are distinguished between external (bridging) social capital and internal (bonding) social capital (Wong, 2018). Internal social capital relies on the internal ties among individual members and tends to help the development of a sense of secure, mutual trust, and respect, whereas external social capital relies highly on external relationships and linkages with outside stakeholders (Spillane et al., 2015; Wong, 2018). In terms of bonding social capital, the MT-designed activities included monthly gatherings over meals, mountain climbing, tours to museums, tea-tasting gatherings, etc., which the participants called “soft activities.” These activities made the relationship among members closer, and the community members developed their group identification. Most members described the MTS as “a family, where you can not only get professional guidance but also get warm emotional support” (Jen and Berry interview). MT Ben was described as “a leader and also a good friend,” and MT Laura was described as the “older sister” of the studio.

In terms of external social capital, MT Laura described a “bridge” as one major function of the MTS, which connects the MTS members to a large network. A strategy called “invite outsiders in, recommend insiders out” was often mentioned. “Outsiders” refer to external experts from universities or other schools. “Recommend insiders out” involves encouraging participants to connect with broader networks.

She is not only a subject expert teacher, she also had a wide range of interpersonal connections (renmai). She often offers us these opportunities to establish connections with more capable people. Through MT Laura, I know Professor Hunter (pseudonym), a distinguished professor of history. We had dinner together, and Professor Hunter shared lots of information and resources with us; he even helped me to improve my writing. (Leo interview 2)

An MT is a renowned expert in a specific subject, and he or she has broader guanxi (interpersonal relationship) networks than ordinary teachers (Qian and Walker, 2022; Wong, 2018). The social ties facilitated the mobilization of information and resources within and across the MTS and provided more PD opportunities to the participants.

When we finished our investigation, MT Ben told me to represent our research in the meeting where all principals in our districts joined. MT Ben was supposed to represent the research, but he gave me the chance. I spent much time preparing it because I cannot lose face of our studio. It eventually turned to be a successful lecture through which many principals and district leaders recognized me. (Kate interview 2)

In addition to social connections, MTs have more access to professional resources, and they frequently share this information with or utilize these resources for the participants. Two MTs described the following:

I was frequently asked to give lectures at many schools. Sometimes, I was too busy to respond to all these invitations. So I would recommend my members, which is a challenge for them, and an opportunity to learn (Ben interview 2)

Through the “soft activities,” trusting and family-like relationships were established within the community. Through the MTs’ social capital, the participants can access more resources, information, and opportunities. These opportunities, to some extent, are crucial for teachers’ career advancement in China (Zheng et al., 2021b). Katz and Earl (2010: 48) argued that in networked PLCs, leaders act as “boundary spanners” and facilitators of change within the network and across a wide range of communities. Teacher leaders in this study bonded internal social capital and established connections with members of the community. They further helped members to span their boundaries and collaborate with more actors (Wang and Wong, 2021; Zheng et al., 2019). Bridging external capital and resources may bring distinct perspectives on teaching and knowledge, and leaders can facilitate participants’ reflection through interactions with these actors and resources (Akkerman and Bakker, 2011; Qian and Walker, 2022).

Sustaining the community through leadership virtues and role modeling

Effective communities involve not only structural change but also cultural transformation (Stoll et al., 2018). Profound cultural building is important for the sustainable development of communities (Olivier et al., 2018; Turner et al., 2018). We further asked why the participants were willing to continuously join the activities of the MTS in the second round of interview, and most participants answered that the leaders were “worthy of following.” Specifically, members were continuously influenced by the MTs’ personal virtues and role modeling and by the atmosphere of the MTS. By co-working with the MTs, the teachers were influenced not only by the MT’s expertise but also by his or her virtues.

She used to be a faraway star for me. However, after working with her for years, what impresses me is her real dedication to her work, her diligence, her commitment and her enthusiasm for teaching and students. Her fame is made up of these virtues. Working with such a model is contagious, and you feel shame if you do not do your work well. (Jen interview 2)

The way in which the MTs work, live, and treat their students deeply influenced their members. These virtues will spread in the learning atmosphere of the MTS.

Working with Ben, I can never say “I am so busy”. He is already an expert teacher, but he still works so hard. He is older than me, but he is always curious and passionate about the cutting-edge ideas and apply them in teaching. I am always influenced by his virtues. (Wendy interview 1)

In addition to these personal virtues, moral leaders are found to show collective interest, altruism, and caring for others (Farh et al., 2008; Wong, 2001). In MT Ben’s words, “Helping the young seems a natural responsibility for an elder teacher. I want to help more young teachers achieve higher professional goals.” The leaders are concerned not only with the participants’ PD but also with their lives. One typical quote is the following:

A good leader can understand your professional needs and provide opportunities and resources. In addition, she is a caring leader. She will offer help if we have problems in our daily life. (Kate interview 2)

Many scholars have argued that an important dimension of teacher leadership is reculturing the community (Muijs and Harris, 2007). A sustainable community depends on the learning culture and participants’ identification with the group (Turner et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2021b). The leaders played a key role in the reculturing process with their personal virtues and role modeling. In the Chinese context, leaders are models not only of expertise but also of learning virtues (Li, 2012; Walker and Qian, 2018). These virtues and modeling behaviors are similar to air spreading throughout a studio and are contagious for the participants. Leaders are “worth following,” which means that communities are worthy of committing to them, as the atmosphere of a community is largely determined by the leader, especially in a hierarchical society (Hairon et al., 2015; Zheng et al., 2019).

Discussion

As Scribner and Bradley-Levine (2010: 516) argued, “understanding how teachers make sense of teacher leadership within particular cultural contexts provides insights both about teachers’ professional and bureaucratic work lives as well as about the context in which they are lived.” The study reported a case in which teacher leaders enacted multiple strategies to facilitate teachers’ PD in a networked learning community in a Chinese context and explored how the community can be sustainable. The results emphasize that teacher leadership practices in learning communities share some similarities with their international counterparts, while the Chinese contextual and cultural contexts elicit some differences. The similarities and differences can extend our understanding of teacher leadership across different contexts.

Adopting a combination of leadership strategies to achieve a dynamic balance

Previous studies on Chinese leadership reveal that leaders in China have adopted basic leadership strategies similar to those used in Western countries, such as setting the direction, developing people, and redesigning the organization (Day et al., 2011; Leithwood et al., 2020). Our results show that the two MTs used similar strategies in a localized way when leading the community, including establishing a shared value and goals, structuring the organization through rules and collaborative activities, and developing people’s capacities through allocating resources and scaffolding. Walker and Qian (2018: 74) pointed out that the distinctions between Chinese principals and their international counterparts refer mainly to “the different combinations, sequencing or timing of leadership strategies as enacted in the Chinese context.” Our results partly support this argument. For example, the rules adopted in different stages varied. Early on, rules were strictly implemented, while later, rules were more flexible based on the members’ situations. Timing also mattered, and the MTs provided and allocated resources for different members at the right times.

Successful leadership practices can hardly escape from their contexts. The present study explored teacher leadership in NLCs in a hierarchical, policy-driven, high power distance, and collectivistic context (Ho and Tikly, 2012; Hofstede et al., 2010). In terms of the hierarchical and policy contexts, the MTS was initiated, sponsored, and managed by different levels of educational government. Legitimate authority gained from the government not only brings financial support, time, and space for the operations of the MTS, which is important for communities across different countries (Hopkins et al., 2014; Katz and Earl, 2010; Prenger et al., 2019), but also creates accountability. The more resources and professional power an MTS acquires, the greater responsibility the MTS assumes, and the more teachers’ PD and student learning are supported. This requires teacher leaders of an MTS to find a balanced path that can help simultaneously improve teachers’ professional development and achieve goals set by the government (training teachers and implementing research projects). In addition, a careful balance between long- and short-term goals, between strictness (about rules) and caring, between MTS organizational development and MTS member’s personal and professional development is also needed.

Further, to lead the community in a network successfully, the MTs see the individuals, community, and a large network as a whole. The MTs not only attached importance to relationship building within the community but also allocate professional resources to the members and provide opportunities to access outside professional resources or platforms (e.g. the university lecture, the report in the district meeting). This may be influenced by the collectivistic culture, which emphasizes relationship building and group cohesiveness (Ho and Tikly, 2012; Walker and Qian, 2018). Teacher leaders are not only the leaders of the community but also bridges or boundary spanners in a wider network who can connect with schools, university expertise, and local government (Katz and Earl, 2010; Qian and Walker, 2022; Spillane et al., 2015).

In addition, the MTs adopted strategies depending on the developmental stage of the community and participants’ differences and dynamic needs. Concerning the different backgrounds of each person, some members needed to be pushed, while some participants needed a scaffold. Effective teacher leaders always keep the community members and their needs in mind and use a series of tools to address their needs (Turner et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2021b). The MTs recognized the members’ different traits, backgrounds, and professional needs. Unpredictable problems are accepted in communities, and leaders adopt different strategies and tools dynamically (Zheng et al., 2021b). As Nisbett et al. (2001) observed, for the Chinese, “there is an emphasis on change, a recognition of contradiction and of the need for multiple perspectives, and a search for the ‘middle way’ between opposing propositions” (Nisbett et al., 2001: 293). When contradictions emerged, the leader considered long-term goals and holistic benefits and mediated different perspectives so that collaboration could continue to contribute to teacher development or student learning. Walker and Qian (2018) argued that Chinese leaders always avoid extremes and look for a balanced level, which is deeply influenced by the doctrine of mean in Chinese culture. In dynamic situations, the Chinese tend to find the “middle way” between extremes, “accepting that two parties to a quarrel can both have right on their side or that two opposing propositions can both contain some truth” (Nisbett et al., 2001: 294). Leaders can be authoritative and benevolent at the same time (Farh et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2020), and they see different strategies as the way to the holistic and balanced development of the community.

Leading the community administratively, professionally, and morally

Previous studies have proposed two types of strategies, namely, administrative and professional leadership, as means to promote teachers’ PD and school improvement (Zhang et al., 2022), and these two types were detected in our findings. Administrative leadership strategies, such as distributing tasks to each member, establishing the quitting rules, and requiring “working in pairs,” were shown in this study, especially in the early stage of MTS. Teacher leaders with authority recognized by the government are allowed to use such administrative strategies (Wang and Wong, 2021). Professional strategies include professional expertise and knowledge resources to support teachers’ PD (Zhang et al., 2022). For example, some participants were pushed to learn, and some were scaffolded to learn (e.g. writing a report and giving lectures) depending on the MTs’ recognition of different participants’ needs, strengths, or shortcomings. The MTs also utilized their capital to offer different PD opportunities to different participants.

In a collectivistic and high power distance society, when excellent teachers are formally recognized as MTs, they are expected to assume leadership responsibility over a broad range, such as leading cross-school peer learning (Jensen et al., 2016; Qian and Walker, 2022). As the formal leaders of MTS, teachers are equipped with more professional and social capital, and they also entail more administrative power recognized by the government. However, these resources are no longer the “assets” of just themselves or their schools, and their expertise and wisdom should be shared across a wider group of schools and teachers (Qian and Walker, 2022).

In addition to these two leader strategies, a third dimension, namely, moral leadership (Farh et al., 2008; Li, 2012; Wong, 2001), is important for the cultural transformation and sustainable development of the community. The participants were attracted by MTs’ professional expertise in the first place. MTs were described as a “star” and “expert” by some participants, which denoted the professional gap between the MTs and the participants. Moreover, the participants continuously saw the MTs as role models who are worthy of following. Previous studies concerning leadership in networks have recognized the role of moral purpose (Boylan, 2018; Jackson and Temperley, 2007; Lieberman and Mace, 2009). This study addressed moral leadership as the fundamental aspect necessary for the sustainable development of NLCs, especially in Confucian heritage societies (Farh et al., 2008; Hairon et al., 2015; Li, 2012). As Farh et al. (2008: 174) noted, “Chinese society has a long history of selecting and evaluating leaders on moral ground. The most effective form of governance is leading by virtue and moral example.” Both MTs demonstrate high moral standards and were identified as role models. The identification of a role model indicated “some self-awareness of the discrepancy between the self and the role model and quite possibly also awareness of ways to narrow this discrepancy” (Li, 2012: 171). In Chinese culture, a leader needs to sustainably gain his or her authority based on some form of merit, such as expertise in teaching, and he or she should demonstrate high moral standards such as Confucian Junzi, which emphasizes humaneness, altruism, sympathy, etc. (Li, 2012; Walker and Qian, 2018). When “an individual genuinely recognizes, acknowledges and admires another exemplary person for his or her merit and moral qualities, one would sustainably learn from this model to narrow the discrepancy” (Li, 2012: 171). The participants sustainably participated in the MTS as a consequence of the MTs’ individual virtues, such as diligence, concentration, hard work, altruism, and benevolence (as mentioned by Mona, Clare, Leo, Felton, Berry, and Hank). Furthermore, teacher leaders emphasize the collective interest of the entire group by caring for others (Walker and Qian, 2018: 8). These values are deeply rooted in Chinese paternalism and Confucian altruism culture, especially for excellent teachers or leaders (Walker and Qian, 2018; Qian and Walker, 2022).

Conclusion and implications

The study focused on a new PD program in mainland China, the MTS. MTs are assigned to be leaders of other teachers in a networked learning community that connects teachers from different schools. Through a qualitative analysis, the study summarized five major strategies to successfully lead the MTS. The study has some implications for teacher leaders at different levels for developing learning communities.

Teacher leaders can learn from the basic leadership practices proposed by classical literature (Day et al., 2011; Leithwood et al., 2020) and apply them in practice when leading communities or networks across different contexts. As successful leadership practice is context-specific, teacher leaders need to adapt these general strategies to local contexts according to the developmental stage of the community (Stoll et al., 2018; Prenger et al., 2019). Teacher leaders, with legitimation and financial support from governments, can also build ties between community members and the wider network, which links teachers’ learning needs with learning resources (Wang and Wong, 2021). Moreover, concerning the changing and complex situations in communities or networks, teacher leaders need to realize that there is no fixed model for leading the community successfully (Leithwood et al., 2020), and “there may neither be a right answer nor a quick answer to a problem” (Clarke, 2016: 354). Communities are in different stages, and participants’ needs and problems are constantly changing. The key to successful community leading may be the usage of different strategies according to the participants’ needs and the developmental stage of the community. For example, in the early stages, strict rules seem to be necessary, and in later phases, leaders need to strengthen group cohesiveness using flexible rules and cultural building activities. When leaders encounter complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity, they need to be able to recognize and diagnose the contextual factors inherent to an event or circumstance (Clarke, 2016) and focus on dynamic problem-solving in practice.

Finally, a successful teacher leader is a professional leader, an administrative leader, and a moral leader at the same time. Administrative and professional leadership can help manage communities or networks well, and moral leadership can facilitate culture building and sustain communities or networks. Teacher leaders performing these virtues (who are diligent, hardworking, caring for others, and have enthusiasm for teaching and students) are more inclined to lead a community sustainably. Especially in societies influenced by Confucianism, such as Singapore and Vietnam (Hairon et al., 2015), people tend to respect those who are exemplary at achieving certain virtues, such as exerting the utmost effort to learn, self-discipline, and humility (Li, 2012). Teachers may respect their leaders for their status, position, and power in the beginning. However, they tend to be continuously influenced by their leader’s moral qualities, such as diligence, a wholehearted effort to perform their jobs, and a deep commitment to student learning. Moral leadership extends not only beyond mere possessing of moral purpose but also the impact of leaders’ virtues (e.g. self-discipline, a willingness to learn and humility) and their high standards of modeling behavior (Farh et al., 2008; Wong, 2001).

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China [CDA210251]; International Joint Research Project of Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University [ICER202002]; Youth Project of Humanities and Social Sciences of Ministry of Education, China [20YJC880115].

ORCID iDs

Xin Zheng

Juyan Ye

Notes

Author biographies

Xin Zheng is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Education, Southwest University, China. His research interests include teacher learning, school leadership and student learning. His recent publications appear in Educational Management Administration & Leadership, Teaching and Teacher Education, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, and Teacher and Teaching.

Juyan Ye is an Associate Professor at Center for Teacher Education Research, Key Research Base of Humanistic and Social Science of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University. Her research interests include teacher education, teacher leadership, and teacher identity. Her recent publications appear in Teacher and Teaching and Educational Research.

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