Abstract
The Psalms were composed for oral performance, and many today believe they should be restored to their performance vitality. “Translation for performance” requires many concepts to be considered, one of which is how the audience (or receptor community) will use the translated text. In the case of translating poetry, these considerations often point to the value of literary-rhetorical translation, which captures the poetical beauty and persuasive power of the original. Also, translating from an oral text and following the form of local poetic genres facilitates ready application of psalms. In this paper, empirical studies illustrate some ways in which psalms have been used recently with communities in South Africa: in corporate worship, in personal prayer, and with sectoral groups. Translators need constantly to keep their eye on the end game, to ensure the translated psalms facilitate a living conversation between people and God, as the ancient poems did.
Keywords
Introduction
For many Christians today, the book of Psalms is a favourite, into which they dip when going through a difficult time. On the other hand, my research among Zulu youth (Dickie 2017a) indicated that many people (particularly those in non-liturgical churches) are unaware of this rich poetic treasure and how it could help them in various situations. Moreover, with the greater awareness of the oral root of psalms, and the growing interest in both lament and performance, new possibilities arise for presenting these biblical poems in a way that will engage those previously unaware of these beautiful and powerful prayers.
First, a word on why psalms play (or could play) such a key role in the life of the church. Although many psalms include an added title that may help to identify their Sitz im Leben, in most cases there is no consensus as to the life situation (personal or communal) in which the biblical text was used (Muilenburg in his introduction to Gunkel 1967, v, vi). Rather, as Westermann (1981, 199) argues, the prayers in the Psalms can encompass any number of situations. Gunkel (1967, 32) argues that often (as a result of the work of redactors), psalms represent liturgical formulas 1 more than they do poems written for an occasion. Consequently they lend themselves to be an effective means of expression for people in many situations across time.
Positioning this research within previous studies on the use of psalms in everyday life
A number of authors have written on translating psalms and reflecting on psalms for personal devotion. However, as Madipoane Masenya (2014, 233), a scholar from the Northern Sotho community of South Africa, notes, “I am struggling hard to recall when in my ecclesiastical context I last heard a sermon based on a text from the Book of Psalms, or last prepared a sermon or Bible study teaching based on Psalms.” However, she adds, “It is not uncommon to ‘hear’ some of the Psalms or texts derived from the Book of Psalms sung as hymns and/or choruses.” Most would agree that their use of psalms tends to be limited to psalms of praise, for personal use or in the church community. In contrast, little has been written about helping people practically to apply the psalms in difficult situations encountered in their daily lives. 2 Neither has much attention been given by church leaders to including corporate lament in the life of the church, nor to the possibilities of expressing psalms using local oral art, for teaching or worship.
My contention is that all in the church (both individuals and as a community) need to know how to appropriate the psalms. This paper seeks to help in that regard, by providing empirical examples of how psalms have assisted individuals and church communities in South Africa. But being able to engage well with a psalm requires it to have been translated in a way that facilitates such application. This is discussed next.
“Translation for performance” to facilitate the ready use of psalms in everyday life
Although the greater part of this paper is given to describing ways that psalms have proven to be helpful in everyday South Africa, attention needs also to be given to considering how to translate in a way that facilitates a ready application of psalms by the community. First, an anecdote highlights that some translations of psalms have been found to be lacking in this regard. Nida (2003, 82) describes an incident that occurred when he was translations secretary for the American Bible Society and visiting South Africa. A Zulu poet approached him and complained that the psalms in the Zulu Bible did not sound like Zulu poems, and he requested permission to retranslate them. Apparently he did so “with great success,” using the form of Zulu praise poetry (izibongo). 3 Similarly, Wendland has had success using the local poetic genre of ndakatulo to translate psalms into chiChewa (e.g., Wendland 2000), and Dickie (2017a) likewise found that Zulu youth, using the form of izibongo (and with additional basic training) could make very good translations of some praise psalms. These examples highlight the value of incorporating local poetic devices in translating psalms.
To facilitate natural translation that sounds like “a good poem” in the receptor language (RL), and bearing in mind that psalms were (and are) prepared for oral performance, it is helpful to work initially from an oral text, make an oral translation, and experiment with a preliminary oral performance of some verses of the psalm. This oral translation can then be tightened up with a detailed exegetical check. 4 As is well established, it is much easier to add accuracy to a text than to add creativity.
Further, as poetry is composed to be heard, the translation must give prominence to “sound elements” in the RL, based on those seen in the Hebrew. To do this, a translation method such as Wendland’s (2006) Literary Functional-Equivalence (LiFE) approach is very helpful. Three aspects of translation are important if psalms are to lend themselves to easy application, as described in the rest of the paper. These are (1) working from orality towards the written, (2) following the form of a poetic genre in the RL, and (3) giving due attention to sound elements in both the Hebrew and the RL.
As this paper is based on an understanding of translation that is perhaps new to some, a brief overview of emerging thinking is first presented. Then examples are given of how psalms may be used in corporate worship (to express praise and communal lament, and for teaching), by the individual (for personal relief), and by groups (youth, and those with special needs). The approach underlying all these empirical studies is that of literary-rhetorical translation (or Wendland’s LiFE approach). 5
Translation for users
Bible translators have the goal that their work will be used, that readers or hearers will engage with the text, and find it meaningful and helpful. Consequently they are “practitioners . . . bringing together diverse materials and redirecting their flow in anticipation of what might emerge” (Ingold 2011, 213, italics added). This focus on looking forward to the needs of the receptor community rather than backward to the original text is implicit when a translator takes the audience into consideration (Maxey 2016). When translating psalms for oral performance, the audience 6 must be constantly in view. The examples in the next sections illustrate how different people—individuals and communities—use psalms as a means to express their emotions and find help and healing.
Corporate worship
As psalms depict conversations between people and God, they are a guide as to how we may interact with God in praise or lament, or how God may speak to us (in wisdom psalms).
Praise
Liturgical churches generally include the reading of a psalm within the order of worship, but in many other churches, psalms are rarely included in any form. And yet psalms were composed for performance, which implies the community should be integrally involved. In South Africa, audiences expect to participate in any poem or song, and thus welcome praise psalms being presented in a culturally sensitive form which allows congregational participation. Moreover, inviting community members to participate in the translation and performance of psalms yields rich gains, including the following (Dickie 2017a; 2017b).
Youth engaged
Young people in a church service (after sitting passively) become animated and very involved (even jumping up to take videos) once their peers begin to perform. The personal connection with the performers, and the artistic stimulation, catch their interest. Consequently, the message of the psalm is more likely to become “something talked about and shared with friends” (Soukup 1997, 106).
Communal participation
All members of the congregation join in the singing of a psalm refrain as it becomes familiar. Or if not, their hands and feet move in time with the beat. Local musical forms (e.g., a long preliminary introduction of beating drums and the singing of “Hey mama, hey baba”) serve effectively to gain the attention and involvement of the congregation before the message of the song begins.
Preparation for the sermon
Having the psalms presentation (performances of songs, rap, and spoken poetry) precede the pastor’s sermon helps prepare the way for the preaching, making the congregation alert and attentive. Indeed, various forms of oral art can support the preaching ministry. As Dorson (1972, 41ff.) notes, “a combination of stories, songs, dances, and poetry is a very pan-African characteristic of oral art.” The melody and rhythm of a song enable people to remember a story (Tippett 1967), and even a line from the song can evoke the whole message (Klem 1982, 128). Thus the verses of a song may give the details of a psalm with the chorus focusing on the main idea.
Moreover, providing space in worship for multimedia ministry encourages the discovery and development of those with artistic gifts. One young woman said after a psalms workshop (Dickie 2017a), “I always knew I was a singer, but now I realize that I am also a poet.” Thus community translation and performance promote team ministry, affording creative members of the church opportunity to contribute in a significant way and support other ministry.
High acceptability
Performances can use traditional ways of communication (e.g., repetition of key ideas and strong rhythm), and characteristic expressions (e.g., ideophones or exclamations), resulting in the presentations being highly acceptable to the community.
Ownership of the translation
Shirky (2010, 51, 103, 88, 212–13) highlights that technological advances result in people having more “free time” but also greater need for social connection. This suggests the potential in using community participation for many projects that previously were the exclusive domain of professionals (particularly in the case of translating poetry). The millennial generation wants, and expects, to be part of the process and not simply be handed a prepared product. Therefore, giving interested persons an opportunity to participate in Bible translation can be very productive. Indeed, “owning the translation” (which results from participation in the process) appears to be more important to young people than having someone else’s “more beautiful” translation. 7 The experience of “getting inside the black box” of Bible translation is found to be more fulfilling than having a “perfect product.” 8 Although their compositions may not be incorporated in the “official” translation, participants are highly committed to their versions and have a strong sense of ownership of the psalm.
Community participation in setting acceptable limits
Public performance permits the establishing of a local community of interpretation and Scripture use. Such a group can play a vital role in defining whether a translation is within the limits of acceptability and can also help apply the translation’s content to sociocultural issues.
Insights gained
Community members often bring insightful interpretations or applications of a text to the local situation. For example, two Zulu poetry fans independently understood “stand by night” (Ps 134.1) as meaning “persevering through problems” (which came out of their own experiences at the time). 9 Further, in their translations of Ps 93.3-4, participants changed the original metaphors to be more meaningful in their context. One adjustment of a metaphor even brought a new understanding to the exegesis: the metaphor of a lion was used for both the enemy and the LORD, but the word for the former refers to a common lion (-bhubesi) whereas the other (symbolizing the LORD) indicates the royal lion, the king (-ngonyama).
These advantages can result from including local people in Bible translation, particularly of poetry, and have great potential when presenting psalms of praise within the community of worship.
Corporate lament
At times of communal trauma (e.g., following a natural disaster or a wave of crime in a particular community), it is important to have a means for people to be able to unite in bringing their pain or anger to God, and thus receive release from carrying the burden alone. Two empirical cases where this was done are described below: The first (Dickie 2018) gives an opportunity for a group of refugees within the community to express their pain to God in the presence of the congregation, and the second is a congregational response to a horrific few months of domestic violence against women, which was much publicized and demanded a response from the church.
There are many reasons why a church community needs to practice lament, corporately and personally. First, without opportunity for lament, church members may not receive healing for themselves, resulting in their ministry being barren (O’Connor 2002, xiv). Consequently, pain-bearers are left abandoned, often to experience “life-threatening despair” (Hooks 1994), and society becomes toxic and self-centred. Moreover, if there is no public opportunity for communal lament, and no rituals to articulate pain, then the need for initiatives to bring about justice may be paralysed (O’Connor 2002, 128). Communities are left broken, even in situations where the problem could be rectified. As Cilliers (2007, 395) notes, there is an urgent need for “lament to take the place of lethargy,” and one way we can begin to do this is to include communal lament regularly in the life of the church.
There are many groups within every church community who feel on the outside, for example, single mothers, couples without children, older singles, foreigners, and the unemployed. If such groups could be given opportunity to stand together in prayer for their particular concerns, supported by the rest of the Christian body, it could make a significant difference in bringing about “a change in the persons praying and the audience” (Corvin 1972, 145). One example in this direction—using a communal lament prayer within public worship—is described next.
Refugee lament (Dickie 2020c)
Many church members are blind to the difficulties faced by others in their midst, whether it be in the local congregation or the wider community. In Cape Town, there are many refugees from Francophone Africa, some of whom find employment as car guards in the local shopping malls. Although refugees generally have strong links with one another which they highly value, they also seek emotional connections with locals (Ager and Strang 2008). In fact, being excluded by insiders (i.e., being treated as those who don’t belong) is considered by them to be more burdensome than the structural difficulties they face (Fozdar and Hartley 2014, 10).
There are many advantages to insiders and outsiders getting to know each other. First, both groups can benefit from cultural exchange and learning from one another (Main et al. 2017, 363–64) although it does require effort from both parties (Hollan 2008). Second, it facilitates issues of social justice being addressed (Renner 2009, 59). Although personal interactions between insiders and outsiders are extremely valuable, it is also important for the communal pain of outsiders to be expressed in a public space (Hooks 1994; O’Connor 2002, 128). This facilitates an environment of mutual concern and support being generated. Through hearing the lament of outsiders, insiders are alerted to the fact that “structures are not functioning properly,” and some action must be taken in response to the pain of the marginalized (Brueggemann 1992, 19, 22, 29). Also, by their standing together with the outsiders, a spirit of solidarity can bring a measure of healing to those in pain. It is particularly beneficial if the public lament takes place in a sacred space and includes the use of Scriptures and biblical prayer (Fischer et al. 2013).
The need for a public and sacred space suggests presenting a communal lament addressed to God within the context of a church service. Many liturgical churches provide opportunity for communal praise, thanksgiving, and confession. If this practice could be extended to include communal lament as part of the regular ritual of the church, it would be particularly helpful. The advantage of establishing lament as a ritual within church liturgy is that “liturgy conditions members of the community to certain habits, orientations and perceptions” (Cilliers 2007, 42). People thus prepare themselves for the opportunity within a designated, regular time during worship to express their pain (or stand alongside others in their pain) and together to bring it to God.
There is a distinction between prayers of intercession and the public prayer of lament. The former recognizes the pain of others (usually in their absence) but “the voices of those in the congregation who are currently suffering” may not be included (Lyon 2010, 242). There is a need for those suffering (who are present) to be able to collectively bring sorrows, anger, frustration, and anguish before God so that pain can be acknowledged, shared, and heard, and for God then, through the church, to respond with love and mercy. As Lyon (2010, 243) notes, “These expressions of pain . . . in combination with a responsive acknowledgment by the congregation are [vital] to the health of the church community.” Moreover, Katongole (2017, xiii, xv, xvi) points out the critical connection between lament and hope. For him, arguing and wrestling with God is a way for those in pain to articulate their suffering and gain hope.
The empirical study discussed in this article wanted to see if insiders (South Africans) would become more empathic to the difficulties of outsiders (refugees) when they heard the latter’s prayer, and if the communal event had any impact on the refugees. To help frame the prayer, various biblical texts were first read, those which focus on unity in Christ (e.g., “all are one in Christ Jesus” Gal 3.28). This was an attempt to help congregants recognize their common identity with those in pain before them, as people empathize more with those with whom they identify (Cikara et al. 2014).
The group of refugees who took part in the study were from Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, students in an English conversation class run by a local church. I invited them to join me in studying some biblical laments (particularly Pss 3 and 13), noting their determinative features. 10 Then they composed their own laments, from which a communal lament was prepared and presented as a prayer some weeks later (see the Appendix).
The group of refugees stood at the front of the church, surrounded by insiders, as they offered their prayer, and the congregation responded with affirmations (indicated on an overhead screen). Interviews and questionnaires showed that the attitudes of insiders to outsiders did change as they heard the pain of their fellow Christians. The refugees also expressed gratitude and noted that they felt affirmed during the service and after, when a number of people engaged with them. They felt as if arms were being opened to them (Cilliers 2007, 402), and the insiders found blind spots being removed so that they could be more caring to others in a different and difficult situation.
Communal lament against domestic violence
Lament may be expressed not only in words, but also through actions. Rituals “give survivors [and witnesses to trauma] a specific time and place where feelings can be expressed and understood” (Mollica 2006, 177). After a spate of horrific murders in Cape Town in August 2019, the movement against gender-based violence gained enormous traction, and several people in the local church felt an urgent need to acknowledge the communal pain and do something as a church.
It was decided to have a time of quiet reflection based on Ps 56.8-11 (“You have . . . put my tears in your bottle”), to remember and pray into the scourge of domestic abuse, but also other horrific events that had been taking place further afield, e.g., insurgent atrocities in Mozambique. During a time of silent personal prayer with no music playing, people were invited to come to the front, take a pinch of salt, and drop it into a bucket of salt water (representing tears), simultaneously naming aloud or silently the situation being brought to the Lord. Many people found the ritual meaningful, and appreciated getting out of their seats and doing something, as well as the silence, in contrast to the noisy protests in the streets.
Artistic encouragement/teaching to the community (see Dickie 2020a)
Psalms provide wisdom or teaching that can be artistically presented to the community, thereby gaining their attention and participation. I chose Psalm 133, which contains the message that God blesses those who choose to live in unity with one another. I invited three groups to study the psalm, think about its relevance in their situations, and then apply their imagination to the text (Iser 1974, 279), in order to present the message in a meaningful way to their peers.
The groups who participated were women in the township, youth from the local church, and artistic volunteers from the church. The psalm was first read in a simple English translation, and the structure of the poem and its main message were briefly discussed. In particular we noted key words, e.g., “down” occurs twice and “falls” once, symbolizing God’s blessing being poured out on God’s people who live in harmony. Careful translation is necessary to ensure that the literary richness of the Hebrew is retained in the translation to facilitate creative interpretation of such ideas. For example, the artistic volunteers represented the idea of downward motion through having musicians and dancers form a pyramid (standing on different levels), with their movement being seen as downward, from God to others, who passed it on to yet more.
To understand the essence of the psalm, participants discussed what living in harmony would look like to them. One woman from the township suggested that it is “like a group of happy babies all together in one day care.” A young teen asked, “Is harmony like humans and bears playing football together?” Applying their imaginations to the text helped the participants to engage more concretely with the message of the psalm. Then, in groups, they presented a performance of the psalm, conveying the essential message through mime, dance, drama, or visual art.
The presentation by the “artistic volunteers” was a careful transformation of imagery and key ideas in the text to specific symbolic representations. For example, they began with just one musician quietly playing and singing his translation of the psalm. This was then complemented by successive instruments and more and more voices. As the music began to swell in harmony, one dancer did a distinctive head roll, implying the intentional decision 11 to live in unity with others, and reached out to touch two others in front. They repeated these movements, thus the number of those moving in synchrony progressively increased. The message of God’s blessing flowing down, as people intentionally harmonized together, was clearly perceived.
Personal prayer
There are a number of ways in which individuals use psalms for their own prayer, particularly when they sense great need. If a person has experienced deep trauma, it is vital that they express their emotions and regain their voice and agency (Herman 1992, 155). Lament psalms can help, either by enabling the person to verbalize deep emotions they may be experiencing, or by providing a format to frame their own prayer composition. In this study, both approaches are described. First, Ps 55 is used to help traumatized women identify the source of their pain. Then two lament psalms provide a structure for pain-bearers to compose their own laments.
Personal lament through finding expression in a psalm (Ps 55)
Many authors have encouraged the reading of psalms as a way for people to voice their own condition (Augustine, cited by McCarthy 2005, 25–26). Being poems, the words of psalms may “stir the soul to see the ordinary in extraordinary ways” (Slattery 1999, 41) or become “a mirror and a container” by and through which a person views her “narrative of identity” (Antebi 1986, 240). 12 For example, Ps 109 “could be the voice of a woman who is victimized by rape … [or] a Palestinian peasant weary of war” (Brueggemann 1984, 87).
By providing an opportunity for former victims to articulate their pain and be validated by listeners and fellow sufferers, 13 including those in the text, 14 resilience can be built (Frechette and Boase 2016, 10–11). Also, the fact that lament psalms include both a “radical recognition of pain” as well as “a willingness to hope that things can be otherwise” (Odets 1995) makes them particularly helpful in times of trauma.
In the empirical study, a group of young women living in a South African township were invited to read Ps 55 together. The township has all the problems of a disadvantaged community, and Ps 55 reflects many difficult situations with which they are familiar, for example, the sense of being surrounded by enemies, the longing to escape the physical context, betrayal by a friend, deriding speech, and so on. After reading the psalm several times together, they were asked to select verses that particularly resonated with them.
The results show that most of the women identified particularly with the first two verses (requesting God to listen and answer) and v. 9, which mentions that “there is so much violence and trouble in the city” and asks God to sort out “the bad people.” The main value of the exercise seemed to be that it helped the women recognize that they are not alone in their suffering, and that through the ages, people have cried out to God for relief from violence in their midst, and for God to bring justice against those who do evil.
Again, a literary translation can ensure that the imagery and powerful rhetoric in the text are retained, enabling modern sufferers to be touched by the power of the poetry.
Personal lament through composing one’s own poem
Composing one’s own story or poem not only restores agency to the former victim but also reduces her sense of isolation (Symonds 1982). Moreover, the creative process often helps the sufferer discover something new about herself (Hollander 1997). However, some people need a little help with beginning the process, and a useful frame to follow is that of biblical laments. A study of some short lament psalms (e.g., Pss 3 and 13) indicates that a typical lament includes five elements: an address to God, complaints (sometimes in the form of rhetorical questions), requests for deliverance and for justice to be levelled against the perpetrators of evil, 15 an affirmation of trust, and a vow of future praise. Most biblical laments also include some reminder of God’s actions in the past or hope for promised intervention.
In an empirical study (see Dickie 2018), participants used this structure to compose their own personal laments. For example, a refugee woman begins her lament by asking, “For how long, God, will you allow the enemy to do whatever he wants towards my life?” She next accuses God (using rhetorical questions), and then requests, Lord, please take away the bad management of AR who took away my job whilst I was pregnant. May justice prevail over my situation because you are a God of truth and justice. Lord, may the same pain that I felt after losing my job backfire on AR for his bad management.
She has a sense of being innocent in the situation and so requests vengeance. She also expresses agency in that she is giving her side of the situation. And she ends by saying, “Heal my broken heart and spirit within me.” The form of the psalms, in all their rawness and unfettered emotion, helps her to be honest about her pain.
Sectoral groups
Performing a lament psalm can be very enlightening for youth groups, particularly to help them recognize the voice of God speaking to them in the dialogue. Unfortunately, the performative and expressive qualities of psalms have often been undervalued (Mandolfo 2002, 5), but there is a growing move to recognize that psalms are meant to be embodied, allowing the text to be felt and experienced, not simply heard or understood (Cousins 2017, 37–39).
Youth perform lament psalms
Performing any psalm requires one to identify the various speakers and addressees at different points. Indeed, treating lament psalms as “performance literature” (Bauman 1992, 41) enables one to discern “voices in dialogue” and the rhetorical function served by this dialogue (Mandolfo 2002). There is even the possibility of God’s voice (or a representative thereof) responding to the lament. Several clues within the text suggest this interpretation, particularly the sudden mood swings apparent in many lament psalms. Speech-act theory, when applied to the lament psalms, also highlights patterns of speech that indicate a conversation is in play. 16
These language clues, together with the sudden mood changes, suggest the possible identification of God speech in Pss 3 and 13. This is also supported by the work of Fernyhough (2016, 49). He suggests that God’s apparent silence 17 in some psalms is to give space for the complainant to discern an inner voice in the direction of hope. Bosworth (2019, 15–17) asserts that this inner voice arises from various sources in the social environment (e.g., biblical texts, the words of religious leaders, or liturgies). Some writers refer to this inner voice as memory. John Donne (Potter and Simpson 1955, 73–74) writes, “The art of salvation is but the art of memory . . . remembering the mercies of God.” Thus the inner voice may seem to represent the voice of God, or indicate God’s response in the situation.
On that basis, I wrote a script converting two lament psalms (3 and 13) into conversations between the psalmist onstage (as are the enemies) and God offstage, heard but not seen (see Dickie 2020b). The sudden change of mood in a lament psalm (for example, before v. 3 in Ps 3) suggests that something significant has happened, that the psalmist has heard something from God. 18 For the dialogue, I put the words of affirmation into the mouth of God, to be heard by the psalmist. The script for Ps 3 follows:
O LORD, I have so many enemies; so many are against me. So many are saying,
“God will never rescue her!”
I am a shield around you, your glory, the one who lifts your head.
(Lamenter listens carefully)
I cried out to you, LORD.
I answered you from my holy mountain. (Lamenter listening and pondering)
I lay down and slept yet woke up in safety.
I was watching over you. (Lamenter listening)
There may be ten thousand enemies surrounding me on every side,
But you will not fear.
Arise, O LORD! Rescue me, my God!
I will slap all your enemies in the face! I will shatter the teeth of the wicked.
(reacting to the pain inflicted to their mouths)
I give victory. I will bless my people.
The use of different voices for the various characters helps those hearing the performance to recognize that a dialogue is in progress. Even as they hear (and perhaps identify with) the complaints of the lamenter, they also hear a response representing the voice of God. This can help contemporary users learn to listen for the voice of God in response to their own personal laments (Dickie 2020b, 14).
Groups with special needs unite in communal lament
There is value in a group of fellow sufferers expressing their pain together, to one another and to God. Several empirical studies (e.g., Dickie 2018) invited pain-bearers from various sectors in South Africa (e.g., AIDS sufferers) to participate in short workshops where they composed their own laments, as described in Section 4.2. Then they put their ideas together to make a communal lament.
The group of AIDS women recited their lament together, with a chorus, “Lord, listen to our prayer” (repeated four times), alternating with a request. As they did so, their arms were around one another, and in the final chorus, they raised their hands together. It was a powerful symbol of unity, with their prayer combining some elements from Ps 55 (e.g., “if we had wings, we would fly to a better place” and “God, make them talk nonsense. Make them go mad because they have done bad to our community”). However, there was also new imagery (e.g., “When bad people talk bad about us, they spit on our backs”).
Analysis of the lament compositions shows they include the elements considered essential by trauma therapists (establishing safety, reconstructing the trauma story, and restoring connections with one’s community; Herman 1992) and lament researchers (restoring the voice of a subject, providing a sense of justice, and connecting with God; Villanueva 2008, 25). Thus there is ample reason to assume that the collective lament would contribute to the healing of the women.
Conclusions
The examples described in this paper are to encourage those who lead youth groups, the worship ministry, small groups, and others involved in Scripture engagement, to experiment and explore new ways of interacting with psalms. Indeed, performance and community participation are beginning to become important components of the way people apply biblical texts, and a careful translator will bear these possibilities in mind, ensuring that these ancient poems retain their original literary and rhetorical power. Moreover, as mentioned at the start of this paper, the translator will facilitate such engagement with psalms through natural discourse which arises by working from an oral base and by following the forms of local poetry. Such translation will release the powerful possibilities embedded within the original psalm texts to transform lives.
Footnotes
Notes
Abbreviations
Appendix 1: Communal prayer of lament
Composed by refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burundi living in South Africa, 2020. Translated into English from French. Text in italics indicates the response that members of the congregation were invited to pray. God, how long will we stay in South Africa as refugees? How long will we be staying in someone’s house, renting?