Assessing the Influence of Multitiered Systems of Support Training on School Counselors’ Perceptions of School Counseling Activities: Results of a National Study

Abstract

School counselors are often integral in implementing multitiered systems of support (MTSS), and training in MTSS is crucial for building school counselors’ MTSS capabilities (Sink, 2016). However, scholarship investigating school counselors’ MTSS training is limited, particularly regarding their school counseling practices. In this study, we assessed school counselors’ training in MTSS in relation to their beliefs about appropriate roles and activities. School counselors indicated whether they completed coursework, continuing education, or supervision focused on MTSS, and whether they had experiences with MTSS. Participants shared their beliefs about appropriate activities for school counselors via the International Survey of School Counselor Activities, United States version (Fan et al., 2019). We found that MTSS training was related to perceptions of career counseling, individual work, group work, leadership, and prevention, highlighting the aspects of MTSS training that corresponded with school counseling roles. We provide implications for practice and future research.

Keywords

school counseling multitiered systems of support training

The United States education system is encountering substantial challenges. Mainly, K–12 schools are facing a surge in mental health crises, largely in response to upheaval from the COVID-19 global pandemic (U.S. Department of Education, 2021) and the racial justice movement that has highlighted systemic injustices that have plagued our country and education system since its inception (Ladson-Billings, 2021). As such, school counselors are continuing to provide mental health support while also advocating for systemic change that dismantles racial and social injustices for students. The U.S. Department of Education (2021) recommends multitiered systems of support (MTSS) as an evidence-based, culturally sustaining practice to assist all K–12 educators to meet their students’ and schools’ social/emotional, behavioral, and academic needs; this framework has become increasingly important in light of the current challenges facing students. The school counselor is one staff member that is integral in MTSS implementation, aligning this framework with their comprehensive school counseling program. Although school counseling/MTSS alignment is widely discussed in the literature (e.g., Betters-Bubon et al., 2016; Goodman-Scott et al., 2016, 2019, 2020; Ockerman et al., 2012; Ziomek-Daigle et al., 2016) and school counselor MTSS training is necessary (Sink, 2016), only limited scholarship has investigated school counselors’ MTSS training and its relationship to school counseling practices. As such, the purpose of this study was to assess school counselors’ training in MTSS in relation to their beliefs about appropriate school counseling roles. Please note: scholars often use the terms training and preparation interchangeably; we use the term training to include both.

Comprehensive School Counseling Programs

Comprehensive school counseling programs have been shown to be critical in establishing positive outcomes for K–12 students, and school counselors play a major role in the implementation of these programs, such as those adhering to the American School Counselor Association’s ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2019). Specifically, comprehensive school counseling programs have been associated with a host of benefits, such as more equitable school environments (Gay & Swank, 2021), decreased disciplinary referrals (Lapan et al., 2012), enhanced school connectedness (Dimmitt & Wilkerson, 2012), and improved academic performance (Wilkerson et al., 2013). Moreover, ASCA National Model implementation is also associated with better school attendance (Akos et al., 2019) and the degree to which school counselors advocate for social justice (Feldwisch & Whiston, 2015). In conversations on comprehensive school counseling implementation, scholars have recently focused on the importance of aligning these programs with MTSS, a three-tiered framework widely implemented in K–12 education that can meet student and school needs.

MTSS

MTSS is an overarching term describing a framework for organizing and addressing school-based academic, social/emotional, and behavioral resources and supports, through the focus on data, systems, and practices (Bal, 2018; Brown-Chidsey & Bickford, 2016; Goodman-Scott et al., 2020; McIntosh & Goodman, 2016; Sugai et al., 2019). The current iteration of MTSS is more readily used to capture terms previously utilized with greater frequency: the academically specific Response to Intervention (RTI) and behaviorally focused Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS). MTSS is widely used throughout the United States to focus on the whole child, aiming to be culturally sustaining—reflecting and sustaining the culture of the school’s students and communities—and to work toward equitably serving all students and removing systematic barriers (Bal, 2018; Goodman-Scott et al., 2020; Sugai et al., 2019). To provide a brief overview, the MTSS framework (a) is guided by data at both the student and school level; (b) comprises systems of support, including school policies and procedures; and (c) utilizes a continuum of tiered practices (Brown-Chidsey & Bickford, 2016; Goodman-Scott et al., 2020; McIntosh & Goodman, 2016; Sugai et al., 2019). Related to tiered practices, through Tier 1, school staff provide supports to all students preventatively (e.g., general education reading curriculum or a school-wide social/emotional initiative). Through Tier 2 and 3 supports, school counselors provide small-group and individualized interventions for students with elevated needs. In sum, MTSS is widely implemented and recognized throughout the United States as an evidence-based best practice and has revolutionized K–12 public education. School counselors are involved in MTSS implementation and have been aligning their school counseling programs with MTSS to demonstrate how their work fits into K–12 education.

School Counseling and MTSS

According to ASCA’s (2021) position statement on MTSS, “the application of MTSS aligns with the role of school counseling at any grade level and can be used across the academic, college/career and/or social/emotional domains established in the ASCA National Model” (para. 4). Hence, the ASCA position statement highlights the overlap between comprehensive programs and MTSS. Echoes of these sentiments also appear in school counseling scholarship. Scholars have suggested that school counseling programs and the MTSS framework (i.e., RTI, PBIS, and MTSS) share aspects including a multitiered framework for serving all students based on need; the use of data to guide decision-making; evidence-based practices; collaboration with multiple stakeholders; and cultural responsiveness, advocacy, and equity (Goodman-Scott et al., 2016, 2019, 2020; Ockerman et al., 2012; Ziomek-Daigle et al., 2016). More recently, scholars have also recommended aligning school counseling programs and MTSS using an antiracist lens (Betters-Bubon et al., 2022; Edirmanasinghe et al., 2022). Beyond conceptual articles suggesting the school counselor/MTSS alignment, this research line has been expanding. The majority of such research is descriptive single-case studies, portraying exemplary instances of school counselors’ roles in MTSS and the comprehensive school counseling/MTSS alignment (e.g., Belser et al., 2016; Betters-Bubon et al., 2016; Betters-Bubon & Donohue, 2016; Cressey et al., 2014; Curtis et al., 2010; Goodman-Scott, 2014; Goodman-Scott et al., 2018).

School Counselor MTSS Training

In a special issue of The Professional Counselor on school counseling and MTSS, Sink (2016) suggested the importance of school counselors receiving training for their work in MTSS. However, although a litany of literature exists discussing the school counseling/MTSS alignment and school counselors’ roles in MTSS, only limited literature has explored school counselors’ MTSS training.

With regard to school counselors’ training for MTSS, researchers Ockerman, Patrikakou, and Hollenbeck have conducted the largest research base, focusing specifically on RTI; they published a state-level survey with 75 school counselor participants (Ockerman et al., 2015), and two multistate surveys, one encompassing 15 states and 195 school counselors (Patrikakou et al., 2016) and another with 15 states and 528 school counselors (Patrikakou et al., 2020). The school counselors in these studies reported receiving inconsistent training on RTI (Ockerman et al., 2015), ranging from infrequent to frequent, and the most common type of training occurring at the building and district levels. Researchers found that when school counselors understood their roles and responsibilities within RTI and the benefits of RTI, they were also more likely to view RTI favorably, believing in RTI as a means to positively impact students’ outcomes (Ockerman et al., 2015; Patrikakou et al., 2020). Thus, these researchers estimated that school counselors’ training in RTI improves their confidence, understanding, and support for RTI. Across these three studies, researchers examined school counselors’ RTI-specific training and their resulting beliefs, which revealed the inconsistencies of the existing RTI-specific training and areas in which school counselors reported more and less confidence, as a result of the trainings. These studies provide preliminary information on school counselors’ MTSS training, but they are limited in that they focus solely on RTI, one type of MTSS that is typically academically focused, rather than the broad MTSS framework most commonly used today to address the whole child. Further, these collective studies focused on how school counselors were experiencing the construct of RTI, with little focus on how this RTI training impacted school counselors’ roles or activities.

Next, to fill gaps in this line of research, particularly focusing on school counselors’ training for MTSS and school counselors’ activities, Olsen et al. (2017) used structural equation modeling to investigate the relationship between school counselors’ (N = 4066) activities aligned with the ASCA National Model and MTSS training, challenges with implementing MTSS, and reported MTSS knowledge and skills. Specifically, they used the School Counseling Program Implementation Survey, which included three subscales: Programmatic Orientation, Computer Software and Data, and School Counseling Services; it appears the data analysis was kept at the subscale level. The participants reported having, on average, a low level of MTSS training and needing moderate levels of MTSS training. Olsen et al. also found that school counselors’ ASCA National Model activities had a strong and positive relationship with their MTSS knowledge and skills, and that as school counselors reported greater MTSS training, they also reported higher MTSS knowledge and skills and higher ASCA National Model activities. Thus, school counselors with higher reported involvement in ASCA National Model activities (i.e., Programmatic Orientation, Computer Software and Data, and School Counseling Services), also tended to have higher levels of MTSS training, knowledge, and skills. As such, Olsen and colleagues’ findings portrayed the relationship between comprehensive school counseling programs and MTSS: Increased MTSS training was related to greater implementation of school counseling program activities. Limitations to this study included a sample comprising only ASCA members (who may be more likely to implement ASCA National Model activities compared to non-ASCA members). Olsen et al. recommended that similar future research be completed with non-ASCA members, and that investigations include components of MTSS and comprehensive programs. This is fitting, because their study looked at subscales (e.g., School Counseling Services generally), rather than the type of service and activities (e.g., group counseling, advising). Overall, Olsen and colleagues’ study provided an innovative foundation investigating the relationship between school counselors’ ASCA National Model activities compared to their MTSS training, knowledge, and skills. The need remains to continue to extend this pivotal research to better understand the relationship between school counselor activities and MTSS training, and to examine this construct outside of ASCA members.

Next, while the researchers described above have examined school counselors’ MTSS training through quantitative means (e.g., Ockerman et al., 2015; Olsen et al., 2017), other scholars have discussed MTSS training to a limited degree using conceptual, qualitative, and practitioner-focused research. For instance, in a conceptual article, Sink (2016) provided in-depth recommendations for incorporating MTSS into the training of preservice school counselors, noting preparation accreditations standards, school counseling competencies, curriculum, content, and syllabi recommendations. In their qualitative phenomenological investigation examining the lived experiences of school counselors at Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) schools that were also implementing PBIS with high levels of fidelity, Goodman-Scott and Grothaus (2017b) found that the school counselors in their sample had varied levels of PBIS training (e.g., no/limited training to an abundance of training). Last, Betters-Bubon and Donohue (2016) relayed the importance of PBIS training, describing a practitioner-focused case study of the scaling up and implementation of PBIS in an elementary and middle school. They noted that PBIS training helped school counselors strengthen their previous school counseling training, such as building their capacity to use data (Betters-Bubon & Donohue, 2016).

Rationale and Research Question

In light of the COVID-19 global pandemic and the racial justice movement in the United States, students’ social/emotional, behavioral, and mental health have become the focus of increased national attention. MTSS is a framework to provide prevention and intervention based on a continuum of student needs, thereby addressing the whole child, including mental health. Given that MTSS is implemented throughout the United States and that school counselors are tasked with implementing comprehensive school counseling programs, many have aligned their programs with MTSS to most efficiently and effectively serve K–12 students (e.g., Goodman-Scott et al., 2019; Ziomek-Daigle et al., 2016). In this vein, as noted by Sink (2016):

When new educational models are introduced into the school system that affect school counseling practice [such as MTSS], the training of pre-service and in-service school counselors needs to be updated. . . . MTSS is one such innovation requiring school counselors to further refine their skill set. (p. 203)

Despite the growing research on school counselors’ work in MTSS, limited scholarship exists on school counselors’ training to do this work (Sink, 2016) or how this training relates to comprehensive school counseling (Olsen et al., 2017). Thus, as MTSS implementation has spread throughout the U.S. K–12 education system, including school counseling, school counselors’ training on MTSS also needs to be explored further.

Olsen et al. (2017) began investigating the relationship between school counselors’ MTSS training and school counseling programs and the need remains to continue this line of research, expanding the sample and also delving into the relationship between MTSS training and type of school counseling service/activity more specifically (e.g., group work, prevention, and career development). The following research question guided our study: How does training in MTSS influence school counselors’ view of the appropriateness of school counseling practices associated with career development, group work, individual work, prevention work, leadership and program management, and indirect support of parents and school personnel?

Method

In the present study, we surveyed practicing school counselors on their training experiences in MTSS and their views on school counselor activities recommended as part of comprehensive school counseling program, including the ASCA National Model. We also requested demographic information. Specifically, we asked respondents to complete the United States version of the International Survey of School Counselor Activities (ISSCA-US; Fan et al., 2019) to help address the gap in knowledge on how training in MTSS relates to the full spectrum of school counselor activities. The ISSCA-US assesses school counselors’ beliefs about the appropriateness of activities corresponding to direct and indirect school counseling services with a basis in the ASCA National Model (Fan et al., 2019).

Because scholars have a history of examining MTSS and ASCA National Model alignment, and Olsen et al. (2017) found a relationship between MTSS training and the ASCA National Model, we hypothesized that school counselors who had completed training in MTSS would view as more appropriate the activities assessed by a measure of school counselor roles and activity beliefs. Thus, our study builds on the study by Olsen et al. (2017) by providing more context to compare different types of MTSS training (coursework, continuing education, or received supervision). We also expanded previous literature by asking if participants had on-the-job experience applying MTSS in their daily work. Each training type (coursework, continuing education, supervision, and experience) was coded as a dichotomous grouping variable; this grouping allowed for comparisons between training types and for comparisons between those who did and did not complete each type of training experience. Our paradigm is based on naturalistic, ex post facto research methods, which are suitable for exploring the relationships between variables as they may be occurring in the field (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). We aim to contribute to the emerging literature on the overarching construct: the relationships between MTSS training and school counseling practice via comprehensive school counseling programs, such as those based on the ASCA National Model.

Participants

All final participants (N = 310) were licensed school counselors who worked at least part time in a K–12 school. Students, unlicensed respondents, and those who did not work as school counselors were excluded from the participant sample. Only complete surveys were incorporated into the sample; surveys with missing data were excluded from data analysis. A total of 272 participants (88%) identified as cisgender females, 35 (11%) as cisgender males, and 3 (1%) as nonbinary or gender fluid. The average age of participants was 41 years (SD = 10.5), with a range of 25–67 years, and the average years of professional experience as a school counselor was 10.0 (SD = 7.70), with a range of 1–35. In terms of race and ethnicity, 220 participants (71%) identified as White, non-Hispanic, or Latinx; 40 (12.9%) identified as Hispanic or Latinx; 37 (11.9%) as Black or African American; and 13 (4.2%) as Asian. Among the sample, 273 (88.1%) identified as heterosexual, 22 (7.1%) as bisexual or pansexual, and 15 (4.8%) as gay or lesbian. A total of 184 participants (59.4%) stated that they worked primarily in elementary schools, 51 (16.5%) in middle schools, 33 (10.6%) in high schools, and 42 (13.5%) worked primarily at multiple school levels. Most participants (n = 193, 62%) reported that their schools were aligned with the ASCA National Model, 29 (9%) worked in a RAMP school, and 88 (29%) did not work in an ASCA National Model-aligned school. In terms of having a CACREP-accredited degree, 270 (87.1%) said yes and 40 (12.9%) said no. Finally, participants were asked if they had training in and experience working with MTSS. A total of 170 participants indicated completing coursework in MTSS, 113 had received clinical supervision (either prior to or after receiving their master’s degree) related to MTSS, and 197 had completed continuing education on MTSS. Notably, 260 participants (83%) indicated having on-the-job training through direct experience applying MTSS to their school counseling practice.

Procedure

All recruitment methods and study protocols were deemed exempt from full review by the human subjects committee of the lead authors’ academic college. We sent a recruitment email with links to the informed consent statement and full survey to a contact list of 5000 school counselor emails once per month for 3 months. The contact list was purchased from a direct marketing firm that supports social science research. We also posted invitations to social networking sites that focused on school counselors (e.g., ASCA Scene). Approximately 1200 of the 5000 emails were not valid, and 450 individuals began the survey, for a response rate of 12% of the list. Data were downloaded and stored in password-protected files prior to data screening and analysis. We used an a priori power calculator to determine that a minimum sample of 127 participants was necessary given an alpha level of .01 to interpret significance, 10 groups across 5 grouping variables, and the desire to realize a moderate effect size (Faul et al., 2009).

Measures

Demographic Questionnaire

To facilitate description of participants and help assess the generalizability of results, we asked participants to indicate their years of experience as a school counselor; whether they graduated from a CACREP-accredited program; if they primarily work in an elementary, middle, high school, or mixed-level building; and whether their school counseling program is aligned with the ASCA National Model. Participants were also asked how they identify in terms of their race and ethnicity, gender identity, and sexual-affective identity.

MTSS Training

Participants were asked to indicate their exposure to MTSS through four specific training experiences. The first training experience was completion of any coursework in MTSS, the second was completion of any continuing education in MTSS, and the third was receiving clinical supervision (either pre- or post-master’s) on applying MTSS principles. The fourth option asked participants if they had on-the-job training as a result of direct experience applying MTSS principles in their school counseling practice. Checking the item was coded as a yes, and leaving it blank was coded as a no in terms of completing the training experience. Items for the MTSS training experiences were adapted from Kull et al.’s (2017) items for the role of graduate education and professional development on school counselors’ exposure to LGBTQ issues in counseling. In regard to related research, Olsen et al. (2017) operationalized training in MTSS as low, medium, or high, without specifying types of training such as coursework, continuing education, or on-the-job training.

The International Survey of School Counselors’ Activities–United States

The ISSCA-US measures how school counselors view the appropriateness of activities and practices relative to their role as school counselors across six domains: (a) career and college counseling, (b) leadership and program management, (c) individual counseling work with students, (d) group work with students, (e) prevention work, and (f) indirect service with teachers and parents (Fan et al., 2019). Items were developed using rational-empirical methods and synthesis of the ASCA National Model with other ASCA-based statements and standards. The ISSCA-US is designed to reflect the breadth of school counselors’ role and duties in the field (Fan et al., 2019). The developers identified six subscales across 38 items, and provided adequate construct validity information for continued use in research. All items are scored using a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from very inappropriate to very appropriate (Fan et al., 2019, p. 36). The internal consistency estimates as Cronbach alpha for the six subscales are: (a) Career and College Counseling with Students (.81); (b) Group Work with Students (.89); (c) Indirect Services with Parents and Teachers (.74); (d) Individual Work with Students (.89); (e) Leadership, Program Management, and Evaluation (.89); and (f) Prevention Work (.93; Fan et al., 2019).

Data Analysis

We computed descriptive statistics to describe the sample in terms of gender identity, sexual-affectional identity, race/ethnicity, building level, and school alignment with the ASCA National Model. Correlations were also computed to identify linear relationships between variables and help assess assumptions. We conducted a factorial multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) to assess if differences in completing MTSS training experiences were associated with differences in school counselor role and activity beliefs as measured by the ISSCA-US. We statistically adjusted for years of professional experience as a school counselor by including it as a covariate in the analysis. Use of MANCOVA is appropriate when researchers seek to understand how group differences impact levels of multiple dependent variables where the variables are conceived as aspects of a larger variable or trait (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Planned post-hoc comparisons were also reviewed to assess the source of statistically significant group differences. Analyses and hypothesis tests are interpreted using an a priori alpha level of .01.

Results

Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Assumptions

Means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients are reported in full in Table 1 for MTSS training experiences and the total scores for each of the ISSCA-US subscales. The total number of completed training experiences in MTSS were summed, and demonstrated small, positive, and significant correlations to the Career Counseling, Individual Work, Group Work, Leadership, and Prevention Work subscales of the ISSCA-US, but not to the Indirect Service to Parents and Teachers subscale (see Table 1). We reviewed magnitude of correlations to assess multicollinearity as an assumption for the MANCOVA; all correlations were at acceptable levels to retain the ISSCA-US scores as dependent variables. Data were reviewed for normality and the presence of outliers, and we observed no violations associated with these assumptions. Homogeneity of variance, assessed through Levene’s test, was met. The assumption for equality of variances and covariances was not met, however, and so Pillai’s Trace was interpreted to determine significance and proceed with the analyses because MANCOVA is robust to the violation of equality of variances and covariances (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Descriptively, in relation to MTSS training experiences, most participants indicated practicing school counseling based on MTSS principles (n = 260, 83%), about half had completed a course in MTSS (n = 170), two thirds had completed continuing education on MTSS (n = 197), and roughly one third (n = 113) had received clinical supervision on MTSS from a more experienced school counselor. Among our sample, participants were more likely to be practicing based on MTSS principles than to have received formal training in MTSS.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for MTSS Training and ISSCA-US Subscales.

	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1. MTSS course	.55	.50	-	.18**	.34**	.24**	.68**	.09	.10	.07	.07	.07	.09
2. MTSS CEUs	.64	.48		-	.30**	.25**	.66**	.01	.06	.10	-.08	.05	.11
3. MTSS supervision	.36	.48			-	.26**	.73**	.12*	.02	.12*	.06	.08	.09
4. MTSS experience	.84	.37				-	.60**	.16**	.06	.14*	-.05	.17**	.12*
5. MTSS total	2.4	1.2					-	.14*	.13*	.15**	.01	.13*	.15**
6. CCCS	17.3	2.4						-	.65**	.67**	.33**	.54**	.60**
7. GWS	14.9	2.0							-	.78**	.31**	.57**	.67**
8. IWS	30.0	3.2								-	.34**	.65**	.66**
9. ISPT	19.3	3.5									-	.31**	.28**
10. LPME	29.5	3.2										-	.59**
11. PWS	14.9	1.9											-

Note: MTSS course = completion of any coursework in MTSS; MTSS CEUs = completion of any continuing education in MTSS; MTSS supervision = receipt of clinical supervision from a more experienced school counselor on MTSS; MTSS experience = applied experience integrating MTSS into school counseling; CCCS = Career and College Counseling with Students; GWS = Group Work with Students; IWS = Individual Work with Students; ISPT = Indirect Support with Parents and Teachers; LPME = Leadership, Program Management, and Evaluation; PWS = Prevention Work with Students.

*p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01.

MANCOVA

To conduct the MANCOVA, we grouped participants by MTSS training experiences. Each training experience served as a demographic grouping variable coded into two levels, 1 for those who had completed the experience and 2 for those who had not. The first grouping involved those who completed coursework in MTSS, and the second grouping those who completed CEUs on MTSS. The third grouping involved receiving clinical supervision on the application of MTSS to practice, and the fourth grouping represented on-the-job training experience applying MTSS principles to school counseling practice. Participants were also grouped by whether they reported working in a school aligned with the ASCA Model, coded as yes/no. Thus, we conducted a factorial MANCOVA with scores on the ISSCA-US subscales serving as the multivariate-dependent variable and years of professional experience as a school counselor serving as a covariate. In terms of MTSS training experiences, only MTSS direct experience showed a significant main effect, F(6, 278) = 3.0, p = .007, Pillai’s trace = .61, partial eta square = .060. We also identified a significant interaction effect for direct experience applying MTSS, completing coursework in MTSS, and whether the participant’s school was aligned with the ASCA National Model, F(6, 278) = 2.9, p = .008, Pillai’s trace = .60, partial eta square = .60. To clarify, the interaction effect signifies that differences in ISSCA-US subscale scores were attributable to having direct experience applying MTSS to practice, completing coursework in MTSS, and working in an ASCA National Model-aligned school. The effect size estimates for the main effect and the interaction effect are both in the small range. Review of the planned post-hoc comparisons revealed that, specifically, participants who reported direct experience applying MTSS principles to practice rated items corresponding to the Individual Work subscale of the ISSCA-US as more appropriate for school counselors (p = .01). For the interaction effect, participants who had direct experience applying MTSS principles to practice, had completed coursework in MTSS, and who worked in an ASCA National Model-aligned school rated the Prevention Work items of the ISSCA-US subscale as more appropriate for school counselors (p = .006). In summary, having direct experience in applying MTSS principles to school counseling practice appeared to impact whether participants viewed activities assessed by the ISSCA-US as more appropriate for school counselors. As the effect sizes noted were small, and the other training experiences had no significant effect on ISSCA-US ratings, we consider the hypothesis for the study partially supported with implications described below.

Discussion

In the present study, we aimed to assess the relationship between MTSS training and school counselors’ perceptions of school counseling activities according to the ISSCA-US, an assessment measuring school counseling activities completed as part of the ASCA National Model. First, we found that about half the participants (n = 170) had completed a course in MTSS, two thirds (n = 197) had completed continuing education on MTSS, and roughly one third (n = 113) had received clinical supervision on MTSS from a more experienced school counselor. Thus, the results showed a more optimistic perception of school counseling training and supervision experiences to conduct MTSS, as compared to previous literature. Specifically, researchers previously reported school counselors’ having low and inconsistent MTSS training (e.g., Goodman-Scott & Grothaus, 2017b; Ockerman et al., 2015; Olsen et al., 2017). Further, Ockerman and colleagues (2015) noted school counselors receiving training for RTI at the building level (37%) and district level (32%), as well as receiving no training (11%), one to two trainings (37%), three to six trainings (39%), or more than seven trainings (13%). As such, the present sample, generally, demonstrated a more positive portrayal of school counselors’ MTSS training compared to past studies.

Next, according to our results, most school counselors indicated their practice of school counseling was based on MTSS principles (n = 260, 83%), and the school counselors’ MTSS training demonstrated small, positive, and significant correlations to the Career Counseling, Individual Work, Group Work, Leadership, and Prevention Work subscales of the ISSCA-US. As such, this study showed the positive relationship between MTSS training and beliefs toward implementing most school counseling activities, such as those recommended as part of the ASCA National Model and captured through the ISSCA-US (e.g., career counseling, individual work, group work, leadership, and prevention). This finding underscores that school counselors with MTSS training were more likely to support comprehensive school counseling/ASCA National Model direct activities. Thus, the present study provides emerging quantitative contributions to the greater conversation on the relationship between MTSS and school counseling programs. Specifically, the small, positive, and significant correlations show a relationship between training in MTSS and perceptions of several types comprehensive school counseling program activities.

Scholars have proposed the theoretical overlap between school counseling programs and MTSS (e.g., Goodman-Scott et al., 2016, 2019, 2020; Ockerman et al., 2012; Ziomek-Daigle et al., 2016) and through qualitative research (e.g., Goodman-Scott et al., 2018; Goodman-Scott & Grothaus, 2017a, 2017b) and practitioner-focused case studies (e.g., Belser et al., 2016; Betters-Bubon et al., 2016; Betters-Bubon & Donohue, 2016; Cressey et al., 2014; Curtis et al., 2010; Goodman-Scott, 2014). To our knowledge, one quantitative study, by Olsen and colleagues (2017) has investigated the relationship between comprehensive programs and MTSS, specifically MTSS training. In it, researchers found the positive relationship between ASCA National Model activities (e.g., Programmatic Orientation; Computer Software and Data; and School Counseling Services subscales) and MTSS knowledge and skills, recommending that future investigations examine specific components of comprehensive programing and MTSS training (Olsen et al., 2017). Hence, generally speaking, the present investigation extends Olsen et al.’s current literature on the overarching relationship between MTSS training and school counseling, such as the ASCA National Model (e.g., career and college counseling; individual and group counseling). In particular, our investigation adds to the greater conversation on the relationship between school counseling and MTSS—highlighting the relationship between school counselors’ perceptions of comprehensive program activities and MTSS training received. Further, our results demonstrate the relationship between school counseling activities and MTSS training across specific comprehensive program areas: career counseling, individual work, group work, leadership, and prevention, which, to our knowledge, has not been studied before. As a result of this study, the school counseling field has a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between school counseling programs and MTSS—specifically MTSS training and perceptions on comprehensive program activities—according to a national sample of school counselors.

Our study also had unexpected findings incongruent with previous literature. Olsen et al. (2017) found that MTSS training was positively related to all aspects of the ASCA National Model, including indirect school counseling. However, in our present study, beliefs regarding Indirect School Counseling activities were the one subscale not associated with MTSS training. Although not an exact point of comparison with Olsen and colleagues’ (2017) study, this finding regarding indirect school counseling activities warrants further investigation.

Limitations

Our study was based on naturalistic, cross-sectional survey research methods, and no assertions about causality can be made about the relationship between school counselors’ training in MTSS and their views on appropriate comprehensive program roles and responsibilities. Thus, we did not assess whether the school counselors are currently practicing any of the behaviors identified by the ISCCA-US, only that the respondents believed the behaviors were appropriate. Survey research is susceptible to the threat of special characteristics of survey respondents; the relative small sample size and response rate limits the generalizability of study findings to other populations that closely resemble the sample reported here. The survey did not include an exhaustive list of traits or factors, and other variables not assessed may be influencing the relationships identified here. Motivations to complete MTSS training or the relative resource level of the schools where the respondents work as school counselors, for example, were not assessed, and the list of training types were themselves not exhaustive. Replicating the present finding in similar and also in more diverse participant samples is needed to establish the consistency of the relationship between MTSS and school counselor activities. This should include longitudinal research that helps establish a temporal dimension to contextualize our findings, as well as qualitative research on how school counselors perceive the strengths and weaknesses of training in MTSS as they practice school counseling in the field.

Implications

As a result of the study, we propose the following implications for school counselors at the preservice and practice levels, and for supervisors and school counselor educators. The present findings provided initial insight into the positive relationship between MTSS training and perceptions of some school counseling/ASCA National Model activities, and offered more information on school counselors’ MTSS training in the present sample; therefore, we recommend more school counseling training in MTSS. Specifically, we suggest courses, continuing education, and clinical supervision, and this training can occur for both graduate students and practicing school counselors. In particular, the results of our study show that such training may correlate with school counselors’ perceptions of career counseling, individual work, group work, leadership, and prevention work, in alignment with comprehensive program approaches such as the ASCA National Model. For more suggestions on school counselors’ MTSS training, Sink (2016) outlines specific suggestions for counselor educators to incorporate in their preparation programs.

Future Research

Although the present study found a positive and small relationship between MTSS training and some school counseling services aligned with comprehensive programs (e.g., those aligned with the ASCA National Model), a similar study in the future could investigate the actual implementation of comprehensive school counseling activities, and probe further into indirect school counseling activities. Researchers could also empirically examine the specific components of school counseling and MTSS that are related (e.g., focus on prevention, data), thus gaining a better understanding of the aspects of alignment between these two frameworks. Both school counseling and MTSS are frameworks that aim to be culturally sustaining and advocate for systems-level change. These constructs have become increasingly important in the last 2 years as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the racial justice movement. Although the ISSCA-US Leadership subscale addresses aspects of these constructs (e.g., advocacy), we suggest that future research investigating comprehensive school counseling and MTSS use scales more purposefully focused on cultural competence, advocacy, and systemic changes. Next, given that this study has provided literature bolstering the alignment between school counseling and MTSS, researchers may also consider tools to help school counselors in their school counseling/MTSS alignment, such as developing a psychometrically sound instrument to measure this alignment that school counselors could use to guide their alignment and implementation.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Emily C. Goodman-Scott

Natalie A, Edirmanasinghe

Jeffry Moe

Rawn Boulden

Author Biographies

Emily Goodman-Scott, PhD, LPC, NCC, NCSC, ACS is an Associate Professor, School Counseling Coordinator, and the Counseling Master’s/Education Specialist Graduate Program Director at Old Dominion University. She completed a PhD at Virginia Tech and previously worked as a school counselor and special education teacher, and in several mental health settings serving youth. She has published robustly in national, peer-reviewed journals, including Professional School Counseling, Counselor Education and Supervision, and the Journal of Counseling and Development. Her professional service includes ten years as a board member of the Virginia School Counselor Association, previous president for the Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling, and co-coordinator of the ACES School Counseling Interest Network. She is the recipient of a 2020 research award from the American Counseling Association, and enjoys working with school counseling districts and organizations throughout the U.S.

Natalie Edirmanasinghe is an assistant professor at California State University Long Beach. She received her PhD in counseling and student personnel services from the University of Georgia. Prior to transitioning into counselor education, Natalie served as a school counselor, serving predominantly middle school students in the greater Atlanta, GA area. Her primary research interests include: the use of Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) in school counseling, antiracist practices in counselor preparation and practice, small group counseling, and serving immigrant families in schools. She has co-authored a book, Culturally Sustaining School Counseling: Implementing Diverse, Equitable, Inclusive Programs. Dr. Edirmanasinghe has also provided professional development related to antiracist school counseling practices.

Jeff Moe, PhD, LPC, is an associate professor of counseling at Old Dominion University. He earned his doctorate in counselor education and supervision from the University of Toledo, and has worked as clinical mental health counselor in a variety of settings with a specialization in serving LGBTQ clients. His research on LGBTQ issues in counseling has appeared in national journals including the Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Homosexuality, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, Professional School Counseling, and the Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling. He currently serves as the editor of the Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling, and has served as Secretary of ACES, President of the Virginia Association of LGBT Issues in Counseling, and Treasurer of the Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling.

Rawn Boulden, PhD, NCC, NCSC is an assistant professor in the School of Counseling and Wellbeing at West Virginia University. He is also a part-time child therapist, serving youth and adolescents throughout the Greater Morgantown area. Previously, he was a school counselor at the middle school level. His research interests include rural youth mental health, rural school counseling, counselor education, psychometric research, and exceptional youth.

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