Well-being of Chinese students

Abstract

Students’ well-being in China seems to be insufficiently researched. This article reviews the recent literature on Chinese students' well-being to illustrate the relationship that exists between mental health and education as well as to identify implications for improving well-being. Eighteen articles published between 2012 and 2022 were reviewed and selected according to a systematic protocol. It was found that the reviewed papers focused on 4 areas: analyses of well-being in the context of implications for the study process, analyses of students’ wellbeing in the context of various characteristics yet without direct implications for the study process, studies of well-being conducted among medical students and in relation to Chinese students studying abroad.

Keywords

Well-being students university Chinese students

Introduction

For several decades now, terms such as “well-being” or “subjective well-being” have been growing in popularity in many scientific disciplines, particularly in the health and social sciences (Ruggeri et al., 2020). Well-being is considered by many researchers to be the basis for creating and maintaining healthy, productive societies (Das et al., 2020). There has been an increasing consideration of the concept in educational policies. There is a growing interest in how schools and universities support students' well-being and what factors affect this process (T. Cheng et al., 2021). According to conducted studies it seems that universities around the world are experiencing a decline in students' well-being (Riva et al., 2020). Entering college is associated with two important changes in a young person’s life - the transition from schooling to independent learning and the stepwise initiation of a more independent life, which can affect health and well-being (Alessandri et al., 2020). A variety of aspects related to learning and teaching at university can influence students' mental health and well-being positively or negatively, and conversely, students' mental health and well-being can influence their learning and teaching experiences (Jones et al., 2021). Research indicates that the mental health and well-being of college students is worse than that of non-students; moreover, mental health deteriorates after starting college compared to before the commencement of studies (Worsley et al., 2022). Requirements, workload, assessment policies and other aspects of studying are therefore important risk factors that can affect students' well-being and increase the risk of mental health problems (Jones et al., 2021). Examination and analysis of the university environment, in the context of teaching and learning, the experiences and relationships among students and between students and staff, and their relationship to students’ well-being, are essential for providing appropriate and timely assistance (Riva et al., 2020). The interest in well-being has also been observed in China, which, along with economic reforms and changes in national policy, has opened up to Western culture, including social research theories and methodology. However, there is concern that concepts and tools developed in the West, which are increasingly being applied to the study of the Chinese population, have limited reliability and relevance (Zhang & Norvilitis, 2002). According to Higgins and Zheng, it is necessary to take into account China’s ancient psychological heritage and traditional Chinese culture when studying and interpreting Chinese psychological phenomena and behaviour (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). Moreover, the use of Western-constructed self-report questionnaires based on the Likert scale in a Chinese cultural context may be doubtful due to differences in the perception of the concepts of “satisfaction” and “happiness” (Zeng & Kern, 2019).

The Concept of Well-Being and Its Dimensions Among Students

The concepts of well-being and subjective well-being derive from positive psychology, which focuses on issues related to human strengths and opportunities to improve them. The growth of interest in studying these phenomena has been particularly evident over the past 20 years, beginning with the establishment of positive psychology as a scientific discipline (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002). The reason for the growth of interest in individual well-being was also a protest against so-called negative psychology, which dominated throughout the 20th century and focused on pathogenetic approaches, as well as the noticeable deterioration of social indicators in the most economically developed countries.

Although there is no consensus on a clear definition of the concept of well-being, it can incorporate key psychological dimensions, such as the presence of a positive emotional state and a positive attitude (Liddle & Carter, 2015) and the ability to make decisions and take responsibility for one’s own life achievements (Ager et al., 2015; Roscoe, 2009). Therefore, well-being seems to be one of the key constructs of positive psychology, whose basic assumptions, formulated by Seligman (2002), indicate the importance of describing an individual’s good life in terms of his or her strengths and the factors that foster them. In addition, more significant is how a person perceives and reflects on his or her life situation, that is, the subjective judgment of his or her well-being or, in other words, subjective well-being.

A sense of happiness and contentment are considered to be a very important life value by students from different corners of the world (Diener et al., 1995). Studies suggest that many factors influence students' subjective well-being (SWB). Among them are personal relationships, including social support from parents, friends and a life partner (Ratelle et al., 2013; Dixon Rayle & Chung, 2007). Students' satisfaction with university life is also clearly related to their academic performance (Chambel & Curral, 2005). Indeed, it turns out that a favorable work environment promotes satisfaction with studying, and thus influences productivity and improved academic performance (Cotton et al., 2002). Other strong predicators of students' subjective well-being are specific needs, especially those related to the ability to make choices and freely express oneself, to develop one’s passions and interests, to be successful, as well as satisfied needs for security in both the psychological and social aspects (Turkdogan & Duru, 2012). Hence, research reports involving students around the world demonstrate that a high sense of well-being translates positively into academic achievement, relationships with other people and overall health.

Cultural determinants of well-being

It is worth mentioning that any concept of well-being is culturally embedded. However, while well-being and happiness are assumed to be a universal experience, there are differences in their conceptualization between Chinese and Western cultures. According to Lu, in the Confucian tradition, social responsibilities are placed above the well-being of the individual. Historically, the Chinese, unlike Western societies, have been socialized to place the well-being of the community higher than the happiness of the individual (Lu, 2012). Consequently, well-being will be related not to an individual’s attributes, but to social relationships, performing social roles and fulfilling the responsibilities related to those roles. Therefore, socially rewarded attributes will be self-control, conscientiousness and concern for the collective good, rather than personal well-being as in Western societies (Lu & Gilmour, 2006).

Chinese researchers generally view well-being as subjective wellness based on traditional culture and values. They are also less likely to distinguish the term satisfaction from happiness than is the case in Western literature, due to the main philosophical concepts on which Daoism and Buddhism are based. In these concepts, individuals are not encouraged to have active desires or hedonistic emotions, as this would interfere with the achievement of a homeostatic state of life (in contrast to Western societies, which often reduce happiness to the fulfillment of personal needs and desires) (Lau et al., 2005). Furthermore, dialectical balance, i.e. viewing happiness and unhappiness as two sides of a coin, is vital in Chinese culture; a person does not pursue hyper happiness but rather seeks internal balance, which derives min from the Yin-Yang philosophy (Lu & Gilmour, 2006). As indicated by research in China, well-being is additionally associated with mental bliss and a sense of gratitude towards life, and is assumed to be of a more lasting and deeper nature. Additionally, the use of terms such happiness is impeded by the fact that there are a large number of terms and expressions available in Chinese that appear as representations of a single concept (Lau et al., 2005).

Similar correlations to those described above can be noted for Chinese students, although the well-being of students in China does not seem to be well researched. It is worth noting that any concept of well-being is culturally embedded. Significantly, the word “happiness” has recently entered the Chinese vernacular, with the consequence that Chinese students are less familiar with the concept of happiness than their American peers (Lu, 2012). In addition, research indicates that while Chinese students score higher on international tests, they report lower levels of well-being than in other countries (Ling et al., 2022). One contributing factor is a strong culture of academic achievement. In China, the education received, symbolized by a university degree, particularly one from an elite university, is one of the most vital factors in social stratification, regardless of social background (Gromkowska-Melosik, 2017). As Zhao and co-authors note, academic competition and pressure for academic achievement are the result not only of tradition but of many social and economic factors. Among the most important are the unequal distribution of human and material resources in education, competition among college graduates for positions in white-collar sectors, the lack of a well-functioning social security system, or the vast income disparities associated with education (Zhao et al., 2015). School and academic success is therefore of immense importance to the future of the student and his or her family, resulting in enormous social and psychological pressure. On the other hand, as the authors note, China’s education system that relies on external indicators of academic success educates students who are uncreative and insecure (Zhao et al., 2015).

Aim

The purpose of this article is to review the contemporary literature (covering the years 2012–2022) on the topic of the relationship between subjective well-being and the study process of Chinese students. The review was guided by the following research questions:

• What does the research literature suggest about the relationship between subjective well-being and the study process of Chinese students?

• Which areas were the articles subjected to qualitative analysis focused on?

• What methodological approach was applied to study the relationship between subjective well-being and the study process of Chinese students?

• What factors may be predictors of Chinese students' well-being in the study process?

• What are effective ways to promote Chinese students' well-being in the study process?

Methodology

While reviewing the literature on Chinese student well-being, a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol (Page et al., 2021) was used. Eligible studies were limited to scholarly, peer-reviewed articles published in English between 2012 and 2022. Types of publications included empirical studies published in scholarly scientific journals. Data sources were electronic databases covering the areas of education. Specific databases included Web of Science and EBSCO, as the author only has free access to these two databases. A preliminary search of article abstracts was conducted in each database using the search logical term “well-being” and “Chinese student” and “university.” The search was completed in November 2022. The initial search results are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Search Parameters and Initial Results.

Search terms	Database	Research limiters	Hits
“Well-being”	EBSCO	Scholarly (peer reviewed) journals Published date: 2012–2022	357
AND “chinese student”	Web of science	Scholarly (peer reviewed) journals Published date: 2012–2022	245
AND “university”	Total	Date range: 2012–2022	602

The selection process is shown as a diagram in Figure 1. The screening criteria are shown in Table 2. The targeted selection of articles from the initial list of studies for possible inclusion:

1. Studies published in English between 2012 and 2022 were retained.

2. Papers published in scientific journals were retained; those published in non-indexed or predatory journals, professional journals, and magazines were discarded.

3. Since the current study focuses on Chinese students, studies on Chinese students studying in China and abroad were retained.

4. Only empirical research (qualitative, quantitative and secondary data analysis) was retained.

Figure 1.

Article selection flow diagram.

Table 2.

Inclusion Screening Criteria.

Criterion	Include	Exclude
Publication year	2012–2022	Before 2012
Publication type	Indexed, scholarly Peer-reviewed journals	Trade journals, magazines, newspapers, predatory journals
Language	English	Other than English
Participants	Chinnese students studying in China and abroad	Studies with participants who wasn’t nominated as Chinese student
Research design	Empirical research: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, secondary data analyses	Nonempirical works (editorials, monographs, non-systematic reviews, and proposals)
Relevance	Purpose aligns with current study’s research question	Purpose fails to align with current study’s research questions

Quality Assessment

In order to assess the quality of the analyzed articles, the quality criteria developed by Muller, Rinn and Kettler (Mullet et al., 2017) were used. Six of the nine criteria proposed by the authors were used for this purpose: I Objective, II Participants, III Methods, IV Results,V Conclusions, VI Relevance. Each criterion was rated on a 4-point scale, where 3 = exemplary, 2 = acceptable, 1 = poor, 0 = unacceptable.

Data Collection and Analysis

The purpose of the study, participants' characteristics, study design, results, discussion, conclusions and key findings were extracted and saved in an Excel database for further in-depth analysis. The summary results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

Summary of Details of Reviewed Papers.

Author/Date Reference	Research Purpose	Methods	Participants	Findings
1. F. Kong, K. Ding, J. Zhao (Kong et al., 2015)	To determine the effect of social support and self-esteem on the relationship between gratitude and life satisfaction among undergraduate students	The study used the gratitude questionnaire, the Rosenberg self-esteem scale, the Multi-dimensional scale of perceived social support and the satisfaction with life scale	Participation in the study based on volunteer applications. N = 427, including 267 females and 159 males, 1 person did not specify their gender	Students characterized by higher levels of gratitude tended to perceive more social support from others, which may contribute to increased life satisfaction and well-being ratings
2. M. Shi, X. Wang, Y. Bian, L. Wang (Shi et al., 2015)	To determine the relationship between perceived stress and life satisfaction and the role of resilience and demographic factors for this relationship among Chinese medical students	The study used the perceived stress scale (PSS), wagnild, young resilience scale (RS-14), satisfaction with life scale (SWLS), and demographic section	A sample of 2925 medical students from four medical colleges and universities in liaoning province, China	Stress was negatively correlated with life satisfaction; moreover, the level of life satisfaction differed by gender and field of study. Resilience acted as a mediator of the relationship between perceived stress and life satisfaction
3. X. Xu, D. Wu, X. Zhao, J. Chen, J. Xia, M. Li, X. Nie and X. Zhong (Xu et al., 2016)	The relationship between mindfulness and perceptions of the educational environment	The study used the Chinese version of the dundee Ready educational environment measure (DREEM-C) and the Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills (KIMS-C)	Medical students from second Xiangya hospital of central south university. In the first year, N = 431 were surveyed, and the sample consisted of 171 men and 260 women between the ages of 18 and 24. In the second year of the study, N was 231	Higher attentiveness scores were associated with greater satisfaction with the environment, and the relationship showed persistence. Mindfulness is a consistent factor in predicting perceptions of the environment and was associated with better educational achievement
4. Ch. Chen (Chen, 2016)	The study sought answers about the relationship between resilience, coping styles and subjective well-being (SWB)	The study used the connor-davidson resilience scale, the short form of coping inventory for stressful situations, the satisfaction with life scale and positive and negative Affect schedule	A sample of 239 students, 81 were males and 158 were females, 98 were from social sciences and 141 from sciences and engineering department.	Privity and coping styles significantly predicted SWB.
5. Q. Ding, Y.X. Zhang, H. Wei, F. Huang, Z.K. Zhou (Ding et al., 2017)	To determine whether passive social network use (SNS) is indirectly related to subjective well-being through jealousy and whether this mediating process is moderated by gender	The study used anonymous questionnaires on passive SNS use, envy and subjective well-being	A sample of 707 Chinese students studying six different majors from two major universities. Participants' ages ranged from 17 to 25, with an average age of 19.06 (SD = 1.12). Almost half of the participants (49.93%) were women	Passive use of social networking sites (SNS) can undermine subjective well-being. The association between passive SNS use and low subjective well-being was mediated by jealousy. In contrast, the indirect association between passive SNS use and low subjective well-being due to envy was moderated by gender, with the detrimental effect of passive SNS use being stronger for women than for men
6. D.T.L. Shek, L. Yu F.K.Y. Wu, X. Zhu and K.H.Y. Chan (Shek et al., 2017)	The study monitored changes in university students' personal well-being over a 4-year period	The study used the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) Chinese positive youth development scale (CPYDS) and national survey of student Engagement (NESS)	A sample of 650 randomly selected students enrolled in a 4-year undergraduate program at a Hong Kong university	The first long-term project tracking changes in Chinese students' well-being found that well-being remained relatively stable during the study period. What did change was the students' sense of competence with a decrease during the 2nd year of study and an increase in years 3 and 4
7. L. Yu., D.T.L. Shek and X. Zhu (Yu et al., 2018)	The relationship between students' personal well-being and their academic performance during their university studies and whether this relationship would be mediated or moderated by university involvement	The study used an online survey consisting of the Chinese positive youth development scale (CPYDS), indicators of university engagement and measures of academic achievement conducted at four time points	A sample of 434 students from a public university in Hong Kong. All participants in the study were asian, 316 (72.8%) were Hong Kong students, 105 (24.3%) were from mainland China, 13 (3.0%) were students from other asian countries. 266 female students (61.29%) and 168 male students (38.71%) were surveyed	The level of students' personal well-being at the beginning of their university life significantly determines their academic performance at the university. The results showed that students with higher levels of positive youth development (PYD) competencies reported greater personal development and achieved higher average grades after 3 years of study
8. L. Auyeung, P.K.H. Mo (Auyeung & Mo, 2019)	The text describes the results of a pilot study analyzing the effectiveness of an online positive psychological intervention (PPI) in context in improving well-being among Chinese students	The experimental study lasted 7 days, during which the experimental group performed a PPI-related task. Pre- and post-intervention evaluations were conducted in both groups	Sample of 139 students randomly assigned to experimental and control group, final N = 100	The results showed that online PPI, whose effectiveness among asians has been little studied, can serve as an effective intervention to increase the well-being of Chinese students
9. L. Huang, M.L. Kern, L.G. Oades (Huang et al., 2020)	To determine how Chinese students understand the concept of well-being, what language they use to refer to well-being, and to identify activities they believe enhance their own and others' well-being	The quantitative and qualitative study used an online survey questionnaire, and a subgroup of 30 of the 84 students surveyed participated in semi-structured interviews	A sample of 84 Chinese students (27 male, 57 female) from eight universities in Melbourne, Australia	Physical and mental health emerged as key elements defining well-being, and intrapersonal activities were seen as the primary approach used to enhance well-being
10. A. Hu, X. Wu and tesla. Chen (Hu et al., 2021)	The relationship between hedonistic and eudaimonistic subjective well-being and various aspects of personal and student life over 4 years of study	The study used the beijing college students panel survey (BCSPS). Four time points were used to construct longitudinal data	The sample size was 2473 full-time students from 54 public universities affiliated with the Ministry of education (MOE), other ministries and municipal governments in beijing	Academic performance, extraversion, seniority and health status have a significant and positive correlation with hedonic and eudaimonic forms of happiness. Eudaimonic happiness may be particularly attenuated by a romantic relationship, and hedonic happiness is particularly attenuated by participation in student associations
11. J. Wu, M. Xie, Y. Lai, Y. Mao and L. Harmat (Wu et al., 2021)	The relationship between flow, academic self-efficacy, self-esteem and subjective well-being in the face of the COVID-19 spread challenge	The study used an online survey questionnaire containing scales: Satisfaction With life scale (SWLS), academic self-efficacy scale, Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) and Swedish flow proneness questionnaire (SFPQ)	A sample of 1109 university students in southwest China of which 237 were male and 872 were female. Significant and positive relationship between flow experience and subjective well-being	The results revealed the significant role of flow experience in the context of higher education in predicting the subjective well-being of Chinese university students
12. Y. Li, F. Hu, X. He (Li et al., 2021)	To determine the impact of play on students' life satisfaction and school burnout	The study used an online survey questionnaire containing scales of playfulness, sense of control, life satisfaction and school burnout	A sample of 353 students at a national university in east China, of whom 125 were male (35.5%) and 228 were female (64.5%). Age ranged from 17 to 26 years, with a mean of 20.10 years (SD = 1.84)	Playfulness (playfulness) is positively associated with life satisfaction and negatively correlates with school burnout. In addition, a sense of control mediates these relationships
13. Q-l. Li, J-y. Zhao, J. Tian, tesla. Sun, C-x. Zhao, H-c. Guo, L-y. Zhu, R. Gao, L-b. Yang, D-p. Cao, and S-e. Zhang (Li et al., 2021)	The relationship between goal orientation, academic performance and academic well-being among Chinese medical students	The study used a cross-sectional, anonymous online survey posted on the “questionnaire star” platform consisting of demographic characteristics, achievement goal orientations, academic Performance, and academic well-being was used, based on the Objectives of this study	A sample of 3511 respondents from four medical universities in China	Chinese medical students' achievement goal orientations are at an average level. Mastery goals are positively related with academic performance and well-being. Chinese medical students with performance approach goals were positively correlated with academic performance and negatively correlated with academic well-being. Those with result-avoidance goals were negatively correlated with academic performance and well-being
14. H.-K. Pong (Pong, 2022)	To determine the impact of service learning (SL) on the spiritual well-being and mental health of Chinese students	The study used a quasi-experimental method supplemented by the measure of spiritual well-being (SWBQ) and the measure of depression, anxiety and stress Scale-21 (DASS-21)	A total of 260 Chinese university students in Hong Kong were included in the study, with the experimental group comprising 132 students (59 males, 73 females) and the control group comprising 128 students (55 males, 73 females)	The SL course held at the university of Hong Kong was found to be beneficial for improving students' spiritual well-being and improving mental disorders (i.e., lowering depression, anxiety and stress) during the COVID-19 pandemic
15. A. Holliman, D. Waldeck, tesla. Yang, C. Kwan, M. Zeng and N. Abbott (Holliman et al., 2022)	The relationship between adaptability, social support and psychological well-being among Chinese students studying in the UK.	The study employed an online survey questionnaire to establish socio-demographic data and measure basic constructs using the adaptability scale, the multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS), the Flourishing scale (FS), the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10), and the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS)	A sample of 325 Chinese students studying at universities in the UK. The majority of respondents were female (N = 169; 52%) who were just after the age of 20. (M = 22.59, SD = 2.96)	Adaptive ability and social support act largely as independent predicators of psychological well-being. Social support moderates the association between adaptive capacity and two mental well-being outcomes: Life satisfaction and psychological distress
16. J.A.D. Datu, X. Lin (Datu & lin, 2022)	This long-term study analyzed the relationship between university friendliness and life satisfaction while controlling for effects such as auto-regressor effects, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism	The survey was conducted in waves every 6 months. The survey included scales of university kindness, big five personality traits, life satisfaction, grit and academic outcomes	A sample of 970 Chinese undergraduate students, including 877 women and 66 men. 27 participants did not indicate gender	The study indicates mental health benefits associated with perceived friendliness in university contexts, beyond the influence of big Five personality factors. Perceived university friendliness was associated with increased life satisfaction
17. Y. Hu, Z. Wang, Q. Fan (Hu et al., 2022)	The relationship between conscientiousness and well-being (subjective and physical) among Chinese undergraduate students	The study employed an online survey questionnaire that was completed twice, with a 1-year interval, and included the following scales: a Shortened Chinese version of the NEO Five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI), the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS), the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) and the cohen-hoberman inventory of physical symptoms (CHIPS)	The sample of 365 undergraduate students from a university in northwest China ranged in age from 18 to 26 - average age of 19.95, 67.95% of which were female	Conscientiousness is a strong and prospective predictor of subjective and physical well-being. The reciprocal relationship between conscientiousness and well-being was not confirmed in a sample of Chinese students
18. S. Yuan, M. You (Yuan & you, 2022)	To investigate the relationship between physical activity and subjective well-being among Chinese students during the COVID-19 pandemic	The study used the general well-being schedule (GWBS), physical activity rating Scale-3 (PARS-3)	A sample of 1198 students from 8 universities in wuhan, China	Physical activity undertaken by students alleviated adverse mental health effects caused by the pandemic

Results

Out of 18 articles selected for analysis, 17 were concerned with quantitative research, while one text was of quantitative-qualitative research. It was found that the analyzed papers focused on four areas: analyses of well-being in the context of implications for the study process, analyses of students' well-being in the context of various characteristics but without direct implications for the study process, well-being studies conducted among medical students and in relation to Chinese students studying abroad.

Methodological Approaches Used

Different methodological approaches were used in the analyzed articles - quantitative and mixed methods. In six of the texts analyzed, the researchers presented the results of long-term studies, conducted over a longer period of time, from 2 to 4 years (during the study period of the subjects) (Datu & Lin, 2022; A. Hu et al., 2021; Y. Hu et al., 2022; Shek et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2018). One text employed experimental research with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of positive online psychological intervention (PPI) in the context of well-being (Auyeung & Mo, 2019), as well, one text presented the results of research conducted in a quasi-experimental design determining the impact of service learning (SL) on spiritual well-being and mental health (Pong, 2022).

Well-Being in the Context of Implications for the Study Process

The reviewed research suggests that levels of well-being among Chinese students are stable and do not change significantly throughout the study period, despite changes in perceived competence and academic engagement. A decrease in the perceived level of competence is observed in second-year students, which may be related to the numerous changes experienced (educational, social and emotional demands of higher education) during the first year of study, while an increase in competence is noted in the third and fourth years (Shek et al., 2017). In addition, the level of well-being at the beginning of the study positively predicted students' personal development and academic performance in subsequent years (Yu et al., 2018).

In the studies analyzed, the authors sought answers about the relationship between well-being and traits such as resilience, coping styles (Chen, 2016), flow (Wu et al., 2021), playfulness (Y. Li et al., 2021), kindness (Datu & Lin, 2022) or conscientiousness (Y. Hu et al., 2022).

A significant and positive correlation was found between well-being and academic performance, extraversion, seniority and health status (A. Hu et al., 2021). Mental resilience and problem-oriented coping styles can have a direct impact on students' subjective well-being. A task-oriented coping style promotes evaluating a problematic situation without emotional involvement, seeking information in order to best solve it, and the ability to adapt to functioning under changed conditions, so the use of this strategy by students with lower levels of psychological resilience increased life satisfaction (Chen, 2016).

Flow appears to be one form of pursuing happiness through engagement. The experience of flow had a significant positive impact on students’ well-being and together with a higher sense of self-efficacy at university was associated with greater academic progress (Wu et al., 2021). Playfulness and fun, formerly seen as a waste of time, are now considered a positive contributor to the human experience, promoting mental health and well-being. Li and team’s research on the rarely addressed topic of university students’ playfulness showed that it was associated with a higher sense of control, which increased students’ perceived life satisfaction and acted as a protective factor against school burnout (Y. Li et al., 2021). Conscientiousness, on the other hand, is a personality trait responsible for resisting desires and impulses and self-control. It is associated with the process of actively planning, organizing and executing tasks as well as with reliability and a responsible approach to duties. In Hu and team’s study, conscientiousness proved to be a solid and prospective predictor of subjective well-being. Promoting the development of this trait among students with low conscientiousness can help improve physical and mental health (Y. Hu et al., 2022).

The Pong study analyzed the impact of service-learning (SL) on the spiritual well-being and mental health of Chinese students. Service-Learning is a form of teaching and learning that combines social engagement of learners with learning related to various subjects. Learners are then engaged in activities for the common good in a variety of spheres: social, political, environmental or cultural. This form is often implemented in colleges. Participation in SL has been associated with improved spiritual and psychological well-being among Chinese youth and positive changes in students' intrapersonal, interpersonal and social levels (Pong, 2022). Auyeung and team’s study, on the other hand, examined the effectiveness of Positive Psychological Interventions, or activities aimed at improving well-being, focusing on using an individual’s positive emotions and strengths. Although originating in Western countries, PPI proved to be useful for Chinese students. By enhancing well-being, PPI reduced depressive symptoms and caused an increase in positive affect and autonomy (Auyeung & Mo, 2019).

Well-Being of Medical Students

Medical studies are considered one of the most stressful majors, consisting of long study hours, frequent examinations, and high demands and pressure to perform well on exams (Rong et al., 2021). Among the texts analyzed, three of the articles addressed the issue of well-being of medical students (Q. L. Li et al., 2021; Shi et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2016). The study found that students in younger years, women, and students in longer (7-year) curricula were characterized by a higher perceived sense of well-being. The result was attributed to the greater number of stressors faced by older students (seeking a highly competitive job) and men (who face more pressure than women in Chinese culture). High perceived stress was associated with lower mental toughness, contributing to lower levels of life satisfaction (Shi et al., 2015). In addition to demographic factors, the effects of goal orientation and mindfulness on students' well-being were also studied. Goal orientation among medical students reduces feelings of stress and is associated with the use of active learning strategies promoting high achievement. Mastery goal orientation, or ability development, was, in contrast to other types, positively associated with both academic performance and well-being (Q. L. Li et al., 2021). High mindfulness in students was associated with greater satisfaction with the educational environment and this relationship was persistent which plays a crucial role as the climate of the educational environment is linked to academic performance and well-being (Xu et al., 2016).

Well-Being of Chinese Students Studying Abroad

From among the texts analyzed, two papers addressed the issue of well-being of Chinese students studying abroad (Holliman et al., 2022; Huang et al., 2020). Foreign students are more likely than other students to experience low well-being and mental health problems due to cultural differences and language problems. Huang and team’s study focused on Chinese students' understanding of the concept of well-being, as the word well-being does not directly appear in Chinese. Chinese foreign students defined well-being as a category consisting of mental and physical health, safety, social relationships and prosperity, where well-being was viewed through the lens of what a person does (career or hobbies), while low well-being was associated with emotions, what people feel. In addition, Chinese students showed acceptance of pressure as a motivator and negative emotions as an inherent part of human life. In terms of actions to promote well-being, the respondents pointed primarily to intrapersonal rather than interpersonal actions, suggesting that the Chinese view responsibility for maintaining well-being in individual terms (Huang et al., 2020). In the study conducted by Holliman et al. adaptability and social support were useful in protecting against experienced current and future stress, and the relationship between adaptability and perceived psychological well-being was stronger when social support was higher. Programs aimed at supporting international students should therefore focus on developing capacity and building social support networks (Holliman et al., 2022).

Studies on Well-Being in the Context of Various Students’ Characteristics and Activities

Another three of the texts analyzed presented research on the relationship between various characteristics of young people, as represented by students, and well-being (Ding et al., 2017; Kong et al., 2015; Yuan & You, 2022). Yuan and You indicated that physical activity can alleviate the negative psychological effects caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. In their study, students who engaged in physical or athletic activities showed better psychological well-being, higher life satisfaction and better control of emotions and behavior. The authors noted the particular importance of physical activity in alleviating stress for senior students, who face more pressure to graduate and seek employment than other students (Yuan & You, 2022). Kong and team’s study analyzed the relationship between perceived social support, self-esteem and gratitude and life satisfaction in emerging adults represented by undergraduate students. The results showed that subjects with higher gratitude scores perceived the social support they received from others as higher (in comparison to those with lower gratitude scores), which was associated with higher life satisfaction scores. Respondents' self-esteem appeared to be a mediator between social support and life satisfaction. In addition, women were characterized by higher gratitude scores than men (Kong et al., 2015). In contrast, Ding and team’s study sought answers to whether passive use of social networking sites (SNS) is indirectly related to subjective well-being through envy. The study showed that envy was an important mediating factor between passive usage of social networking sites (SNS) and subjective well-being. In addition, this effect was stronger for women, which could be related to greater awareness of interpersonal processes or responding to feelings of envy according to traditional social norms of being tough by men and emotionality in women (Ding et al., 2017).

Discussion

For the past decade or so, there has been an increased interest in studying mental health issues in higher education. Given the importance of well-being in the student population, it has become important to know which factors may be the predicators of well-being and how to design interventions to enhance it. The following were identified among the predictors of Chinese students' well-being in the study process: adaptability, social support, playfulness, experience of flow, physical and mental health, stress resilience, job burnout, mindfulness, coping styles, psychological support, gratitude. Analysis of the relationships between the aforementioned factors and subjective well-being, also revealed effective paths of approach towards promoting the well-being of Chinese students, as will be discussed further.

The first years of study are associated with an accumulation of stressors (Cobo-Rendón et al., 2020) and, as a result, well-being levels need special protection when students enter university (Bewick et al., 2010). The studies cited in the text indicate that universities should implement programs aimed at first-year students to facilitate their adaptation to new conditions and requirements (Shek et al., 2017).

Students' coping strategies and mental resilience examined in the texts analyzed are important for adaptation processes since they are related to appropriate responses in stressful situations, reduce inappropriate emotional reactions, promote positive mood and increase life satisfaction (Lacomba-Trejo et al., 2022). Playfulness has only recently been studied in the context of adults. It is believed to mediate the process of coping with stress because it promotes the reformulation of stressful situations in ways that facilitate flexibility, reduce perceived stress and improve resilience (Clifford et al., 2022). The experience of flow is also associated with student well-being, as many studies conducted on non-Chinese populations have also confirmed. From the perspective of university education, it seems essential that students have the opportunity to experience flow in their studies, as it is a pleasurable state associated with better performance and overall well-being (Olcar et al., 2021). In Chinese culture, conscientiousness is seen as a value. Higher students' conscientiousness is associated with more positive mental health and adaptive coping skills. Research on British and Norwegian students confirms the link between high levels of neuroticism and low conscientiousness and poor mental health (Askell-Williams et al., 2018).

Increased awareness of professional burnout, depression among doctors, and mental health problems beginning during their college years has focused researchers' attention on the mental well-being of medical students (Chatterjee et al., 2022). According to research, medical students are more likely to suffer from mental illness, substance abuse and professional burnout compared to other students (Klein & McCarthy, 2022). Additionally, in China, the observed deteriorating doctor-patient relationship, violent incidents committed by patients in medical facilities, and medical-legal disputes constitute stress factors (Rong et al., 2021). In the studies analyzed, resilience and mindfulness were associated with reduced stress and more positive perceptions of the educational environment which in turn was associated with higher well-being. This information should be used to formulate programs involving the development of these traits in students to improve life satisfaction. In addition, medical students, as a particularly stressed group, should be provided with more psychological support during their study period (Shi et al., 2015).

In recent decades, the demand for Western higher education among Chinese has increased, as it provides a source of accumulating cultural capital, enables one to get into a prestigious university, and increases employment and migration opportunities (M. tesla. Cheng & Agyeiwaah, 2022). However, international students are a high-risk population. Studies indicate that international students of Asian origin are less likely to seek help for low well-being and mental health problems. Cultural factors, including Taoism, are significantly associated with tendencies to keep emotions inside and accept difficulties, as well as to rely on themselves in situations of academic stress (Magnusdottir & Thornicroft, 2022). The findings in the texts reviewed suggest the need to be culturally sensitive when promoting well-being in different populations and in the interventions designed.

Regarding gratitude, many studies have found a relationship between gratitude and a sense of overall well-being, and the importance of gratitude training in improving psychological well-being and feelings of happiness (Behzadipour et al., 2019). One theory explaining this relationship indicates that gratitude may be an emotion related to self-acceptance. Accordingly, gratitude interventions allow people to improve their self-concept (Rash et al., 2011). The gender differences in feeling gratitude demonstrated by Kong, and the team, i.e. the higher scores obtained by women may be related to men’s perception of gratitude in terms of weakness. The resulting gender differences most likely reflect Chinese traditional perceptions of social roles (Kong et al., 2015).

Limitations

It should be noted that only 18 articles were qualified for the review, so generalizing the results obtained to a broader scale must be treated tentatively. The search for papers included only two databases, so it is possible that further research papers published elsewhere were not included. Only papers in English were included, which limited the number of studies reviewed and reduced the possibility of obtaining a truly global perspective. It is worth noting that happiness is constructed very differently in East Asian cultures, and therefore for some of the concepts and tools, the Western vision of well-being and personal happiness is not compatible with the perspective of Asians (Lu & Gilmour, 2006).

Conclusion

This review analyzed 18 papers published in English in peer-reviewed journals between 2012 and 2022. The texts analyzed pointed out the relationship of well-being with traits such as resilience, coping styles, flow, playfulness, friendliness or conscientiousness. The special situation of medical students and students studying abroad was also pointed out. The implications of the various findings for student well-being are described.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Ager

Albrecht

N. J.

Cohen

P. M.

(2015). Mindfulness in schools research project: Exploring students’ perspectives of mindfulness. Psychology, 6(7), 896–914. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.4236/psych.2015.67088

Alessandri

Rose

Wasley

(2020). Health and wellbeing in higher education: A comparison of music and sport students through the framework of self determination theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(October), 566307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566307

Auyeung

P. K. H.

(2019). The efficacy and mechanism of online positive psychological intervention (PPI) on improving well-being among Chinese university students: A pilot study of the best possible self (BPS) intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(8), 2525–2550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0054-4

Behzadipour

Sadeghi

Sepahmansour

(2019). A study on the effect of gratitude on happiness and well being. Biquarterly Iranian Journal of Health Psychology, 1(2), 65–72.

Bewick

Koutsopoulou

Miles

Slaa

Barkham

(2010). Changes in undergraduate students’ psychological well-being as they progress through university. Studies in Higher Education, 35(6), 633–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070903216643

Chatterjee

Edmonds

V. S.

Girardo

M. E.

Vickers

K. S.

Hathaway

J. C.

Stonnington

C. M.

(2022). Medical students describe their wellness and how to preserve it. BMC Medical Education, 22(1), 510–511. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03552-y

Chen

(2016). The role of resilience and coping styles in subjective well-being among Chinese university students. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25(3), 377–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-016-0274-5

Cheng

M. T.

Agyeiwaah

(2022). Exploring Chinese students’ issues and concerns of studying abroad amid COVID-19 pandemic: An actor-network perspective. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 30(October 2021), 100349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2021.100349

Cheng

Jin

Chen

(2021). Demystifying subjective well-being of academically at-risk students: Case study of a Chinese high school. Social Inclusion, 9(4), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v9i4.4572

10.

Clifford

Paulk

Lin

Cadwallader

Lubbers

Frazier

L. D.

(2022). Relationships among adult playfulness, stress, and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Psychology, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02870-0

11.

Cobo-Rendón

López-Angulo

Pérez-Villalobos

M. V.

Díaz-Mujica

(2020). Perceived social support and its effects on changes in the affective and eudaimonic well-being of Chilean university students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(December), 590513. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590513

12.

Das

K. V.

Jones-Harrell

Fan

Ramaswami

Orlove

Botchwey

(2020). Understanding subjective well-being: Perspectives from psychology and public health. Public Health Reviews, 41(1), 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-020-00142-5

13.

Datu

J. A. D.

Lin

(2022). The mental health benefits of kind university climate: Perception of kindness at university relates to longitudinal increases in well-being. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(3), 1663–1680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09981-z

14.

Ding

Zhang

Y. X.

Wei

Huang

Zhou

Z. K.

(2017). Passive social network site use and subjective well-being among Chinese university students: A moderated mediation model of envy and gender. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.027

15.

Gromkowska-Melosik

(2017). Gaokao i procesy stratyfikacji społecznej w Chinach. Studia Edukacyjne, 44, 45–63. https://doi.org/10.14746/se.2017.44.3

16.

Higgins

L. T.

Zheng

(2002). An introduction to Chinese psychology—its historical roots until the present day. The Journal of Psychology, 136(2), 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604152

17.

Holliman

Waldeck

Yang

Kwan

Zeng

Abbott

(2022). Examining the relationship between adaptability, social support, and psychological wellbeing among Chinese international students at UK universities. Frontiers in Education, 7(May), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.874326

18.

Chen

(2021). Changing subjective wellbeing across the college life: Survey evidence from China. Chinese Sociological Review, 53(4), 409–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2021.1904389

19.

Wang

Fan

(2022). The relationship between conscientiousness and well-being among Chinese undergraduate students: A cross-lagged study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), 13565. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013565

20.

Huang

Kern

M. L.

Oades

L. G.

(2020). Strengthening university student wellbeing: Language and perceptions of Chinese international students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15), 5538. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155538

21.

Jones

Priestley

Brewster

Wilbraham

S. J.

Hughes

Spanner

(2021). Student wellbeing and assessment in higher education: The balancing act. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 46(3), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1782344

22.

Klein

H. J.

McCarthy

S. M.

(2022). Student wellness trends and interventions in medical education: A narrative review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(1), 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01105-8

23.

Kong

Ding

Zhao

(2015). The relationships among gratitude, self-esteem, social support and life satisfaction among undergraduate students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(2), 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9519-2

24.

Lacomba-Trejo

Mateu-Mollá

Bellegarde-Nunes

M. D.

Delhom

(2022). Are coping strategies, emotional abilities, and resilience predictors of well-being? Comparison of linear and non-linear methodologies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(12), 7478. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127478

25.

Lau

A. L. D.

Cummins

R. A.

McPherson

(2005). An investigation into the cross-cultural equivalence of the Personal Wellbeing Index. Social Indicators Research, 72(3), 403–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-0561-z

26.

Q. L.

Zhao

J. Y.

Tian

Sun

Zhao

C. X.

Guo

H. C.

Zhu

L. Y.

Gao

Yang

L. B.

Cao

D. P.

Zhang

S. E.

(2021a). The association among achievement goal orientations, academic performance, and academic well-being among Chinese medical students: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(August), 694019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694019

27.

(2021b). How to make students happy during periods of online learning: The effect of playfulness on university students’ study outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(October), 753568. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.753568

28.

Ling

Chen

Chow

D. H. K.

(2022). The “trade-off” of student well-being and academic achievement: A perspective of multidimensional student well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(March), 772653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.772653

29.

(2012). Chinese well-being. Oxford handbook of Chinese psychology, January 2012. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199541850.013.0021

30.

Gilmour

(2006). Individual-oriented and socially oriented cultural conceptions of subjective well-being: Conceptual analysis and scale development. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2006.00183.x

31.

Magnusdottir

Thornicroft

(2022). Mental health of Chinese international students: Narrative review of experiences in the UK. NIHR Open Research, 2, 52. https://doi.org/10.3310/nihropenres.13268.1

32.

Mullet

D. R.

Rinn

A. N.

Kettler

(2017). Catalysts of women’s talent development in STEM: A systematic review. Journal of Advanced Academics, 28(4), 253–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X17735305

33.

Olcar

Ljubin Golub

Rijavec

(2021). The role of academic flow in students’ achievement and well-being. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(6), 912–927. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.912

34.

Page

M. J.

McKenzie

J. E.

Bossuyt

P. M.

Boutron

Hoffmann

T. C.

Mulrow

C. D.

Shamseer

Tetzlaff

J. M.

Akl

E. A.

Brennan

S. E.

Chou

Glanville

Grimshaw

J. M.

Hróbjartsson

Lalu

M. M.

Loder

E. W.

Mayo-Wilson

McDonald

Moher

(2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

35.

Pong

H. K.

(2022). Contributions of service learning to the development of university students’ spiritual well-being and psychological health: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 00(00), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2133429

36.

Rash

J. A.

Matsuba

M. K.

Prkachin

K. M.

(2011). Gratitude and well-being: Who benefits the most from a gratitude intervention? Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3(3), 350–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01058.x

37.

Riva

Freeman

Schrock

Jelicic

Ozer

C. T.

Caleb

(2020). Student wellbeing in the teaching and learning environment: A study exploring student and staff perspectives. Higher Education Studies, 10(4), 103. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v10n4p103

38.

Rong

Chen

Dai

Chen

Zhou

Kuang

Xiao

(2021). Improvement of the management of mental well-being and empathy in Chinese medical students: A randomized controlled study. BMC Medical Education, 21(1), 378. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02813-6

39.

Ruggeri

Garcia-Garzon

Maguire

Á.

Matz

Huppert

F. A.

(2020). Well-being is more than happiness and life satisfaction: A multidimensional analysis of 21 countries. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 18(1), 192. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-020-01423-y

40.

Shek

D. T. L.

F. K. Y.

Zhu

Chan

K. H. Y.

(2017). A 4-year longitudinal study of well-being of Chinese university students in Hong Kong. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 12(4), 867–884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-016-9493-4

41.

Shi

Wang

Bian

Wang

(2015). The mediating role of resilience in the relationship between stress and life satisfaction among Chinese medical students: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education, 15(1), 16–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-015-0297-2

42.

Worsley

J. D.

Pennington

Corcoran

(2022). Supporting mental health and wellbeing of university and college students: A systematic review of review-level evidence of interventions. PLoS ONE, 17(7), Article e266725. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266725

43.

Xie

Lai

Mao

Harmat

(2021). Flow as a key predictor of subjective well-being among Chinese university students: A chain mediating model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(November), 743906–743914. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.743906

44.

Zhao

Chen

Xia

Nie

Zhong

(2016). Relation of perceptions of educational environment with mindfulness among Chinese medical students: A longitudinal study. Medical Education Online, 21(1), 30664. https://doi.org/10.3402/meo.v21.30664

45.

Shek

D. T. L.

Zhu

(2018). The influence of personal well-being on learning achievement in university students over time: Mediating or moderating effects of internal and external university engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2287. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02287

46.

Yuan

You

(2022). Effects of physical activity on college students’ subjective well-being during COVID-19. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health, 12(4), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44197-022-00062-4

47.

Zeng

Kern

M. L.

(2019). The Chinese EPOCH measure of adolescent wellbeing: Further testing of the psychometrics of the measure. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(JULY), 1457. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01457

48.

Zhang

Norvilitis

J. M.

(2002). Measuring Chinese psychological well-being with western developed instruments. Journal of Personality Assessment, 79(3), 492–511. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7903_06

49.

Zhao

Selman

R. L.

Haste

(2015). Academic stress in Chinese schools and a proposed preventive intervention program. Cogent Education, 2(1), 1000477. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2014.1000477