Abstract
Bangladesh has experimented with e-governance since the early 2000s and currently ranks among the top 10 least developed countries. The deployment of e-governance at the local level has provided benefits to the rural people, with local councils increasingly using information and communications technology (ICT) to expand community-based delivery systems and augment rural service delivery. One-stop cyber centres provide a range of services that are user-friendly, cost-effective and less time-consuming. This study focuses on five sub-districts to inquire about the range of services provided by the e-service centres there. It has recorded citizen perceptions and the level of their satisfaction and the observations of service providers about the e-service mechanism. It also identifies key challenges in service delivery. Citizen satisfaction was measured using 12 indicators, while the service provider observations focused on social issues, governance, resource and technical issues. The study found several issues requiring attention to consolidate the e-governance system in the country.
Introduction
The digital revolution that heralded the information era in the 1980s brought about a paradigm shift in the ways the state communicates with its citizens. With the arrival of personal computers, the advent of the Internet, the invention of smartphones and advanced satellite technology, dissemination of information has become unconstrained and enabled governments to supply services to the people using information and communications technology (ICT). Thus, ‘cyberspace’ came into being—the virtual interconnective environment that serves as the interactive platform for electronic governance or e-governance to run and carry out its aims within the broader framework of making governmental operations more visible, efficient, effective, accountable, predictive, principled, inclusive and citizen-friendly (Heeks, 2001). Nestled in cyberspace are governmental operations that enable more extensive and easy accessibility for citizens to e-services at all levels (Evans & Yen, 2006).
In realising the goals of e-governance (digitally connecting the state to citizens in the delivery of public service), the state uses e-government (technology structures and the Internet). Thus, the two are distinct. E-governance is defined as ‘the commitment to utilise appropriate technologies to enhance governmental relationships, both internal and external, in order to advance democratic expression, human dignity and autonomy, support economic development and encourage the fair and efficient delivery of services’ (Riley, 2003, quoted in Misuraca, 2007, p. 31). E-government, on the other hand, is the instrument to make e-governance work. The former primarily employs a one-sided communication with the government, reaching out to citizens. At the same time, e-governance is a two-way process that interconnects the state with people for broader outcomes—citizen participation and boosting governmental effectiveness. E-government is static; e-governance is dynamic. E-governance is institutional; e-governance operational (see Calista & Melitski, 2007; Garson, 2006; Sheridan & Riley, 2006).
E-governance has a creative role to play in a modern state by connecting public agencies with citizens, the public with the private sector and the centre with the local government. Based on the rationale of networking, it creates opportunities for ‘interplay’—the semi-formalised, coordinated and collaborative exchanges between and among state and non-state structures, and ‘intervention’—the formalised and legal modes of social interactions between an array of organisations (Kooiman, 1999). From a developing country perspective, relying on both formal and informal networks, e-governance engenders prospects for ‘pro-poor development initiatives aimed at empowering individuals and communities and expanding choice’, particularly at the grassroots (Holliday, 2006, p. 517). E-governance works best within a decentralised structure for its capability to create political, developmental and informational spaces, allowing a useful nexus among the state, citizens, the third sector and the private domain (Cornwall & Gaventa, 2006). For the rural poor, improved access to public services can, in some ways, alleviate poverty and enhance health and well-being, promote education and support other human development interventions. Local councils working within a decentralised structure has the potential to use ICT in expanding community-based delivery systems and augmenting rural service delivery (Von Haldenwang, 2004; World Bank, 2004).
This article is about services delivered by government agencies at the local level in Bangladesh and the degree of citizen satisfaction with their performance. The focus is on four sub-district-based delivery centres offering a range of services using ICT. Through first-hand research, this article analyses citizen perceptions and the extent of their satisfaction. Also, it reflects upon the observations of service providers about the e-service mechanism and its limitations. It also identifies key challenges in service delivery. Citizen satisfaction was measured using 12 indicators, while the service provider observations focused on social, governance, resource and technical issues.
Local Level E-Governance: Conceptual Issues
The deployment of sound e-governance at the local level is a complicated process that presents daunting challenges for developing countries, particularly to the extent of its readiness and in narrowing the persisting digital divide between the economically advantaged and the underprivileged population in rural or semi-urban areas. With a social inclusion approach embodying awareness creation, civic engagement, empowerment and skills building, e-governance can transform the existing digital divide in any society into a ‘digital dividend’ (Carter, 2007; Zambrano, 2008). While concerted attempts have been observed in several countries, with some having achieved steady success, the main challenge will be to ‘leverage societal innovation and resilience’ so that governments are capable of realising the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (United Nations (U.N.), 2018, p. xxviii). A proper e-governance format can help reach SDGs by keeping governmental operations in tune with governance imperatives by providing improved access and quality of service and enhancing citizen participation in rural communities.
Sustainability in social, economic and environmental sectors would be possible by applying ICT techniques and creating public value through innovation, collaboration and digitalisation (Dunleavy et al., 2005). Here, the concept of e-participation becomes relevant as a tool for social inclusivity. It supports active citizen engagement in public affairs through cyberspace or the ICT platform, enabling citizens’ access to information and public services, and creating channels for their inputs in decisions that affect them. E-participation consists of three elements: e-information (for citizens), e-consultation (with stakeholders) and e-decision-making (via public engagement) (U.N., 2003, p. 16). While the first is most common and widely applied, the pursuit of the other two is difficult in countries with low-intensity democracy, but limited forms of experiments are visible (U.N., 2018, pp. 119, 124).
Public infrastructure (Internet–web fusion), interconnectivity (linking public networks), interoperability (ICT ability to process information), intergovernmental access (central–local connection) and security (protection of user data) are essential to make e-governance work (OECD, 2007). It would enable citizens to obtain from the government the desired level of informational and transactional services electronically and aid citizens to apply for and receive a range of services online (Curtin et al., 2003; UKNAO, 2002; Zwass, 2006). Based on citizen-centric ‘requirements engineering approach’, as suggested by van Velsen et al. (2009), some of the criteria in assessing an e-service system include the mixture of users/recipients (homogeneous vs. heterogeneous), the frequency of use (occasional vs. frequent), comprehension of accessed information relating to laws/rules/regulations (complex vs. perceptible), the diversity and interoperability of services offered (coherent vs. disjointed), provision and supply of services (monopolistic vs. competitive) and effectiveness of e-services (use satisfaction vs. discontent). The quality and effectiveness of e-services depend on the best match between user demands and satisfaction and the beliefs and work ethos of officials providing them (van Velsen et al., 2009). As the recipients of services in the rural areas belong to different socio-economic groups, including the marginalised or underprivileged, the process of service provision can be socially sensitive and thus needs to be carefully handled, keeping in view the ‘inclusivity’ element in mind. Generally, e-services are obtained through computers, tablets, land or mobile phones, or other compatible devices. However, a majority of the people in developing countries do not have access to these gadgets or are not familiar with their use and must rely on state-run centres to provide the information they need and to help them apply and pay for services. State support is indispensable to close the digital divide and make e-governance more inclusive.
In many developing countries with inadequate communication facilities in rural areas, people find it hard to access and avail services usually provided at sub-district towns and urban centres. They need a delivery system that is spatially and temporally well within their reach. Thus, for reasons of accessibility, the ‘one-stop’ arrangement—a vital feature of an ICT-based service delivery system has evolved. According to Wimmer (2002, p. 94), this provides ‘a single point of access to electronic services and information offered by different public authorities’. This integrates multiple administrative services under one roof and managed by co-positioned staff standing for different tasks. They can supply an array of e-services to clients expediently and efficiently through interdepartmental connectivity and interoperable technology (Dunleavy et al., 2005; Wimmer & Tambouris, 2002). The essential element of this arrangement is a service ethos that combines client satisfaction (generating ‘utilitarian’ value) and the service provider’s social value responsibility (creating ‘deontological’ or ‘ethical’ value), both of which are critical for the common good (Moore, 2014, p. 473). Based on their case study on Taiwan, Linders et al. (2015) advances a ‘consolidated framework’ for ‘Proactive e-Governance’ that is citizen-centred, data-driven and context-sensitive, and empowering lower-level frontline personnel. The success of e-governance would, to a great extent, depend on a positive nexus between the supply side (government delivery of services) and demand side (citizens reaching out for services) (Reddick, 2004).
The public value of e-governance can be measured by focusing on non-economic determinants, such as social inclusion; trust in government; equality and equity in service provision; citizens’ fulfilment of expectations, preferences and their participation; and sustainability of services (Scott & Golden, 2009; Stoker, 2006). Trust is traditionally assumed to be one of the critical indicators for measuring satisfaction, and ‘a lack of trust results from the government's failure to deliver what citizens expect’ (Beeri et al., 2019, p. 243). Their satisfaction with the availability and range of e-services, ease of access, efficiency and quality of transactions, convenience and effectiveness in obtaining services, extent and accuracy of information provision and the degree of responsiveness to demands are some of the other key parameters to assess e-service performance. Other contributing factors include service providers’ transparency, accountability, interactivity and level of their competence and performance (Grimsley & Meehan, 2007; Welch et al., 2005). Positive user satisfaction with e-services contributes to better provider performance and an increased level of trust in government (Gupta & Jana, 2003). Thus, it is vital to understand what users expect and how they adapt to their demands and preferences (Akman et al., 2005) to maximise the level of their satisfaction with content, mode and speed of delivery; fees charged; cost-effectiveness; and security of transactions (see Venkatesha et al., 2012). The attitudes and mannerisms of behind-the-counter functionaries can play a vital role in positively contributing to the government–citizen relationship and creating trust and confidence in the provision of e-service.
Several indicators for assessing e-service quality have been advanced (Evans, 2013; Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988; Tamimi & Sebastianelli, 1996). Although primarily applied in measuring the performance of firms in the business arena, these indicators can also be employed in evaluating the quality of e-service delivery and perceiving customer satisfaction. The extent of customer awareness of what is available and how to access them will determine the strength of their perceptions. Drawing on the relevant literature, the indicators of quality include convenience and accessibility, reliability and tangibility of service, timelines and delivery speed, perfection and completeness, continuity and consistency, waste elimination, policy/procedure compliance, product usability and durability, accurate and efficient handling, superior service, empathy towards customers, the responsiveness of personnel, and customer perceptions of service quality and satisfaction.
E-Governance in Bangladesh: Evolving Presence
Like other developing countries, Bangladesh has been experimenting with e-governance since the early 2000s, and the upward trend in development is visible. It ranks among the top 10 least developed countries in e-governance that encompass several public sectors such as poverty alleviation, health, education, agriculture and public administration, and positioned at 115 among 193 countries overall (Kosenkov, 2018; U.N., 2018). However, compared to the Asian average, Bangladesh is still behind (Figure 1). On the other hand, in the e-participation index, the country has done remarkably well, trending higher than Asia. Its global position is 51, which is above the other South Asian nations, except India (Kosenkov, 2018) (Figure 2).
Though the platform is still crystallising, three of the four stages in e-governance development have so far been reached. Thus, we find full ‘emerging presence’ (providing basic information service), and some degree of ‘enhanced presence’ (policies, laws and regulation, reports available on government portals), and the limited extent of ‘transactional presence’ (two-way interaction between users and providers) in the e-governance structure (U.N., 2012, p. 120). These forms of ‘presence’ have been instrumental in operationalising e-information, e-service and e-transaction at several levels. Their gradual positive impact has been visible at the grassroots since the initiation of the ‘Digital Bangladesh’ programme in 2009–2010 (Zambrano & Seward, 2013, ch. 4). However, the fourth more advanced phase that integrates government-to-government (G2G), government-to-citizen (G2C) and citizen-to-government (C2G) interactions are yet to fully take shape within a networked structure that would support ‘back-office integration across governmental departments and strengthening institutional arrangements’ (U.N., 2012, p. 11).
The United Nations (UN’s) E-Government Survey of 2018 generated some exciting facts about the Bangladesh situation. In terms of the Online Service Index (OSI), based on an assessment of national, departmental, e-services and e-participation portals, the country has scored very high OSI (0.7847). However, because of low scores in the Telecommunications Infrastructure (TII-0.1976 ) and Human Capital Index (HCI-0.4763), it has found a place in the middle-E-Government Development Index (EGDI)-level group (2018, p. 98). Nevertheless, Bangladesh has done exceedingly well in the E-Participation Index (EPI) with a ‘very high' score (>0.75) that has catapulted its global EPI rank to 51 in 2018 (from 84 in 2016) (U.N. 2018, pp. 98, 114, 115, 117, 143).
As a part of the ‘Access to Information’ or ‘a2i’ programme that seeks to create ‘less-paper’ government operations, citizen service centres or one-stop information and service delivery outlets have been set up around the country at the sub-national levels—district (zila), sub-district (upazila) and union (the lowest administrative unit). This cyberspace or ICT networked system at the local level enables citizens, especially in the rural areas, to obtain a range of informational and transactional services from multiple providers. The underlying principle is to reduce the inconvenience people face in getting services from government offices, making the process user-friendly, cost-effective and less time-consuming. E-services are both citizens- and business-oriented.
Several cyber or community information centres are run by non-state community-based enterprises and commercial lines and user-pay services. However, their geographical spread and functional scope are limited but do provide a positive spin in service provision at the grassroots. The state-run telecentres, on the other hand, in collaboration with private commercial initiatives, have been more instrumental in reaching out to a broader population at the sub-national level and transforming service delivery at one-stop access points. While at the union-level telecentres, private entrepreneurs are fairly active in meeting the needs of service recipients, the upazila cyber kiosks are yet to engage them fully. The upazila centres operate on no known concrete business models; rather, their operational framework is governed by overarching guidelines provided by the government under the aegis of the so-called ‘Digital Bangladesh’ initiative (Siddiquee, 2016; Siddiquee & Faroqi, 2021).
For most of the past decade, multipurpose union-level telecentres have been in operation and used by citizens. Some of the services accessed by citizens at the cyber centres at the lowest level include obtaining land; death, citizenship and inheritance certificates; birth registration; paying electricity bills; applying for passports; trade licenses and overseas jobs; consulting specialists through telemedicine services; downloading official forms; acquiring information on educational opportunities; accessing academic results; getting admission in colleges and universities’ video calling on Skype; scanning/photocopying; mobile banking; etc. (Faroqi, 2015; Khadiza & Ullah, 2020). Some of these services are also available at the sub-district (upazila) and district e-service centres.
The union digital centres (UDC) have been widely studied, and their merits and drawbacks analysed (Faroqi & Collings, 2019; Faroqi et al., 2018; Islam & Hasan, 2009; Rahman & Bhuiyan, 2014; Siddiquee & Faroqi, 2021; Ullah, 2017). The sub-district experiment, on the other hand, has found scant attention from scholars. Thus, there is a huge void in the literature about upazila cyber kiosks’ performance and citizens’ expectations, experiences and perceptions about the extent and quality of services they provide. This study is a modest attempt to fill that void.
Objectives and Methodology of the Study
The aims of the study were:
To inquire about the range of services provided by the e-service centres in the five upazilas; To understand the impact of those services on citizens by evaluating citizen perceptions and level of satisfaction; To register the observations of service providers about the e-service mechanism; and To identify the challenges encountered in delivering and obtaining services.
Poverty Level-National, Cumilla and Study Upazila Comparison.
In terms of literacy, the average percentage rate of these five upazilas is 48.8%, which is well below the national rural average (66.1%). Of these, Chauddagram records the highest rate (58.9%). However, its educational profile is not much different from that of the other four upazilas with several primary, secondary and higher secondary schools and degree-granting colleges (Banglapedia, 2019). Therefore, in general, all the five upazilas shared similar poverty and literacy/educational profile and thus suitable for comparison.
Study Area and Criteria of Respondents.
Like most other research of this kind, this study also had some limitations. First, the sample size was not adequately representative of the entire population of the five upazilas. Time and resource constraints served as deterrents in undertaking a more extensive study. Second, being doubtful with the intentions of the research or issues at stake, interview respondents shied away from answering many questions and focus group discussants were circumspect in making comments. Service recipients assumed the investigators to be representing law enforcement agencies. They, thus, were not open in their responses, while service suppliers were concerned about the extent and content of information they were to divulge without contravening official rules.
The research was primarily conducted to explore the connection between electronic service delivery and citizens’ satisfaction at the sub-district level.
E-Services at the Sub-district (Upazila) Level
Citizens’ accessibility to information is a critical element in the functioning of the e-service delivery mechanism in rural Bangladesh. Every upazila in the country has been brought under the national web portal—no mean achievement, given the large number (491 to be precise) of upazilas. Each of these micro-portals, mainly in the Bangla language for ease of understanding by the people, carries the profile of the upazila (history, geography, maps, communications system and a list of unions within its boundaries), a description of the upazila council (organisational structure, rules and regulations governing it, council proceedings and list of employees), features of upazila administration (organisation and functions of the upazila executive office, and relevant notices and information) and miscellaneous data (digital guard files from ministries, important decisions, report of upazila operations and meeting notices).
At the sheba-kunjos or one-stop kiosks or counters, people are acquainted with the process of getting services from various upazila offices, and these encompass different areas such as agriculture, land administration, law and order, safety and discipline, health and family planning, fisheries, education, utility connections, veterinary services, etc. Assistance is extended for online complaint process, consultation with doctors and free online treatment, emergency calls to police, hospitals/clinics and ambulance and fire services, income tax matters, registration of births and death, utility bill payments, retrieval of public examination results, train and bus bookings, and also online purchases (Interviews with upazila officials, service recipients and the general public). The upazila citizen charter is available for viewing and getting acquainted with the local council’s vision, mission and objectives (see
Measuring E-Service Delivery and Citizen Satisfaction
In any service delivery system, the level of customer satisfaction depends on the efficiency with which services are provided and their adequacy in achieving the intended or expected outcome. Thus, an appraisal of citizen perceptions and satisfaction on the e-service delivery process can shed light on the local level’s overall e-governance framework and performance.
Drawing on the models by Parasuraman et al. (1985), Parasuraman et al. (1988), Tamimi and Sebastianelli (1996) and Evans (2013), citizen satisfaction in this study was measured by using 12 indicators—the extent of accessibility, quality of service, demand fulfilment, time-frame maintenance, choice and consultation, courtesy and consideration, level of interaction, regularity, openness and transparency, clarity of rules and regulations, access to information, and cost of service. The responses on each indicator were recorded on the 5-point Likert scale, with five denoting ‘very satisfied’ and 1 ‘least satisfied’.
From Figure 3, it is evident that in the e-service satisfaction–dissatisfaction continuum, the tilt is towards the dissatisfaction end for four indicators (‘openness and transparency’, ‘clarity of rules and regulations’, ‘cost of service’ and ‘courtesy and consideration’). In comparison, satisfaction is significantly high for two indicators (‘availability of information’ and ‘standard of service’). It is worth highlighting some of the comments made by FGD participants. Relevant to openness and transparency, a woman participant noted with dismay:
When I went to the upazila centre and wanted to know the reasons for some wrong information on the porcha (record of rights) relating to my recently purchased land, the person at the counter seemed to know nothing about the problem or was unwilling to share any information on the procedure to appeal to get it corrected. He was not keen to discuss much about it and seemed to hide something. He simply said that decisions on land records cannot be divulged to purchasers or sellers and that I need to go to a higher authority to get the problem fixed. If such a trivial matter cannot be corrected at the sheba-kunjo online or at least information-seekers given some guideline on the amendment procedure, what is the use of these services?
Another client, an electrician keen to go overseas, narrated his dilemma about the rules relating to passport application:
My experience with the local e-service centre regarding the procedure for obtaining a passport was not at all reassuring as the complex rules were not articulated for my easy understanding. The officer went on circles trying to explain but without making me fully understand the rules; instead, made them more incomprehensible. He wrote on a chit the web site address of the passport office and asked me to download the rules regarding the procedure. However, since I do not have access to a computer nor any idea of using the internet, I had expected him to help me, but that did not happen.
On courtesy and consideration, several clients of e-services expressed their disappointment. The following is a good example of discourteous behaviour shown by a service provider to a farmer:
I needed some advice on tomato seed production technology from the Agricultural Information Office. Initially, they just ignored me and then told me to come another day. They made me do this on three occasions, but every time I had to return home empty-handed. When I tried to report this to a higher officer, I was scoffed and abused. Finding no help, I had to go to the union centre and get the required information.
Some respondents belonging to the lower-income groups lamented the unaffordable cost of obtaining services such as photocopying/scanning/printing and paying ‘commissions’ to intermediaries who ‘help’ them access and procure services at the upazila telecentres. They also reported delays because of frequent power failures and slow Internet connections (Comments of participants at FGDs).
For the remaining ones, two indicators suggest a slight inclination towards the positive end, and the other three show an equipoise between the two ends. Respondents were just ‘about happy’ with the time taken to serve them (52%), ‘fulfilling their demands’ (48%), and the ‘level of interaction’ they had with service providers (43%).
More specifically, respondents are most satisfied with the ‘availability of information’ followed by the ‘accessibility to services’, and most dissatisfied with the extent of ‘openness and transparency’ (28.5%) and the lack of ‘clarity of rules and regulations’ (23.5%). These two indicators are governance-related and thus critically important not only for e-service delivery but for the overall pattern of performance in government. Thus, we find a mix of perceptions among the service recipients in the five upazilas studied.
Issues in E-Service Delivery: Perceptions of Service Providers and Others
One of the research aims was to comprehend the perceptions of key stakeholders, apart from the service recipients, in the e-service delivery system. These included the elected representatives of the local councils, the centrally deployed administrative personnel, locally based technical support teams and local business people. Their perceptions were recorded under four categories of issues: social, governance, resource and technical. Each had some pointers that provided respondents’ impressions on them. On some social issues, nearly half the respondents were concerned about literacy levels in the five upazilas, the problem disadvantaged people faced in accessing services and their little understanding of the sorts of services available to them. However, they had faith in citizen’s trust in government. On governance-related issues, a small majority indicated a lack of transparency and accountability in service-related operations. This is understandable as most respondents are associated with the delivery of service, but that almost half of them did perceive a problem in these two aspects of governance is somewhat worth noting. On the feedback mechanism, the cost-effectiveness of service, customer relations, the range of available services and swiftness of delivery, they expressed a generally positive view. Surprisingly, only a few were troubled about political commitment, which has been of great concern at the national level in different sectors (Akhter, 2005; Fox et al., 2015; Sarker, 2004; Zafarullah & Huque, 2002).
On resource matters, the study recorded variable responses related to physical space in the service centres—high satisfaction with office space and, to some extent, with office furniture but high dissatisfaction with storage facilities and also access to computer terminals. A majority pointed to human resource shortage and less than adequate personnel training, and perceived the imperative for expanding existing physical space. On technical issues, Internet connectivity was a serious concern, coupled with an insufficient supply of electricity. In terms of interoperability of the ICT system, consistency of user interface and protection of privacy of service users, respondents were consistent in their perceptions that these are not without problems. The payment system for services still followed the traditional pattern (Figure 4).
Respondents’ Suggestions for Improvement (in %).
There is a huge concern for the inadequacy of the fundamental physical and technical infrastructural aspects of the e-centres at the upazila level. While stakeholders are keen to see an expansion and diversification of e-services and creating awareness among citizens about them, they also demand improved office space with increased storage capacity, better-quality functional furniture and reliable computers in working condition. The need to develop the capacity and efficiency of those involved in delivering services is vital. However, respondents were not too supportive about introducing some motivational programmes for better customer relations—this corroborated citizen’s perception of ‘excellent’ customer relations (see Figure 4). On the technical front, there was a demand for keeping the system operative to provide continued benefits to service recipients. Thus, the call for uninterrupted power supply and consistent and accelerated Internet connectivity, maintenance of a service delivery database of current and past recipients, types of services covered and outcomes, introducing a customer feedback system, replacement of the traditional payment system with online processing of user fees and making available printing and photocopying facilities. Two key governance indicators (transparency and accountability) were recognised as critical for the success of the e-service delivery process.
Conclusion
E-governance and its auxiliary—e-service—are relatively recent phenomena in public governance, and Bangladesh is gradually advancing towards the goal of providing essential services to its citizens at the local level using cyberspace. While the technology used is not too sophisticated and the system often exposed to breakdowns, the connection between the state and its citizens get steadily strengthened. The NGOs and private sectors are also creating electronic platforms to serve customers at the local level.
Citizen satisfaction with delivering e-services at the local level is mixed, manifesting both positive and less positive perceptions. For many of the indicators, responses sprawl towards the midpoint of the satisfaction–dissatisfaction continuum. However, dissatisfaction is notable for critical issues such as transparency of operations, attitudes towards service seekers, the intelligibility of rules and regulations and the cost of obtaining services. Quite understandably, in some cases, citizens’ perceptions conflict with those of the service providers that are unwilling to disprove their performance or what they do. Nevertheless, quite interestingly, service providers agree with citizens about the lack of transparency and accountability in the e-service provision. Despite several unfavourable observations by citizens on what services they receive from the e-centres at the upazila level and the way those are delivered, the vast majority of those respondents are complacent with their ‘excellent customer relations’.
Bangladesh’s position in the indexes relating to ‘telecommunications infrastructure’ and ‘human capital’ needs to be scaled up to make e-governance much more robust and useful, enabling the move to the next higher EDGI category. The e-participation index can be further consolidated by making the e-services process more conspicuous, inclusive, citizen-attentive and user-friendly. From the governance perspective, the norms of efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and accountability need embedding in the e-governance mechanism. The country’s high performance in the e-participation index has been encouraging, yet there still is scope for e-information to be widened, e-consultation commonly practised and the public more extensively engaged in decision-making at the grassroots.
From a technical point of view, the e-service mechanism can benefit from more organised cyberinfrastructure, more extensive interconnected public networks, enhanced ICT ability to process information, reciprocally advantageous central–local communication and guaranteed security of official and user data. The government-to-government interconnection and the citizen–government interface can serve useful purposes in the e-governance scheme, and improved managerial and technical capabilities will enable efficient and effective operations in e-governance. Building the technical capacity of those serving in the telecentres is vital, so their training and development should be a priority. Another area of intervention should be sensitivity training for those who manage the e-services at the sub-district level. Their attitude and interaction with those they serve need to be positive with a supportive frame of mind. Most of them are centrally deployed bureaucrats with high educational attainment, extensive civil service training and adequate experience (Zafarullah, 2016). All that is essential now is getting them attuned to serving the public at the grassroots. More importantly, the local level cyberspace must be insulated, as far as practicable, from the clutches of rural power elites who apply undue influence upon the e-service system (Ullah, 2017).
In making the e-service system proactive, the primacy of citizens in the process is critical. The ICT system should be run on relevant data generated from the field, the expectations and requirements of citizens, and the rules and regulations that affect the process. More importantly, frontline service attendants at one-stop shops should have enough discretion to handle problems at their end. Another key element—integration of union and upazila e-services and making them complementary to each other—will need to be incorporated in any ICT strategy.
Despite some notable progress in e-governance, Bangladesh needs substantial improvement in its EGDI status among the Asian nations, if not globally. This study, albeit of only five sub-district councils, does identify some of the operational and technical issues that affect the delivery of public services at the grassroots, in particular, and the challenges in the implementation of e-governance, in general.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.