Environmental Inheritance: The “Grandmother Effect”

Abstract

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ader

, & Conklin

P. M.

Handling of pregnant rats: Effects on emotionality of their offspring. Science, 142, 411–12, 1963.

Calhoun

J. B.

Population density and social pathology. Sci. American, 206, 139–48, 1962.

Crain

S. A.

Development of electrical activity in the cerebral cortex of the albino rat. Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Med., 81, 49–51, 1952.

Denenberg

V. H.

The effects of early experience. In Hafez

S. E.

(Ed.) The behavior of domestic animals, Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell, London, 1969.

Denenberg

V. H.

Brumaghim

Joan T.

Holtmeyer

G. C.

, & Zarrow

M. X.

Increased adrenocortical activity in the neonatal rat following handling. Endocrinology, 81, 1047–52, 1967.

Denenberg

V. H.

, & Karas

G. G.

Interactive effects of infantile and adult experiences upon weight gain and mortality in the rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 55, 242–6, 1962.

Denenberg

V. H.

, & Rosenberg

K. M.

Nongenetic transmission of information. Nature, 216, 549–50, 1967.

Denenberg

V. H.

, & Smith

S. A.

Effects of infantile stimulation and age upon behavior, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 56, 307–12, 1963.

Denenberg

V. H.

, & Whimby

A. E.

Behavior of adult rats is modified by the experiences their mothers had as infants. Science, 142, 1192–3, 1963.

10.

Haltmeyer

G. C.

Denenberg

V. H.

Thatcher

, & Zarrow

M. X.

Response of the adrenal cortex on the neonatal rat after subjection to stress. Nature, 212, 1371–3, 1966.

11.

Jailor

J. W.

The maturation of the pituitary—adrenal axis in the newborn rat. Endocrinology, 46, 420–5, 1950.

12.

Joffe

J. M.

Genotype and prenatal and premating stress interact to affect adult behavior in rats. Science, 150, 1844–5, 1965.

13.

Lakin

Personality factors in the mothers of excessively crying (colicky) infants. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child. Develpm., 22, 64, 1957.

14.

Levine

Stimulation in infancy. Sci. American, 1960, 202, 80–86.

15.

Levine

Plasma-free corticosteroid response to electric shock in rats stimulated in infancy. Science, 135, 795–6, 1962.

16.

Levine

The psycho-physiological effects of infantile stimulation. In Bliss

(Ed.) Roots of Behavior. Hoebner, New York, 1962.

17.

Levine

Maternal and environmental influence on the adrenocortical response to stress in weaning rats. Science, 156, 258–60, 1967.

18.

Levine

, & Alpert

Differential maturation of the central nervous system as a function of early experiences. Arch. gen. Psychiat., 1, 403–5, 1959.

19.

Levine

Chevalire

J. A.

, & Korchin

S. J.

The effects of early shock and handling on later avoidance learning. J. Pers., 24, 423–8, 1956.

20.

Levine

Haltmeyer

G. C.

Karas

G. C.

, & Denenberg

V. H.

Effects of infantile stimulation. Physiol, and Behav., 2, 55–9, 1967.

21.

Levine

& Otis

The effects of handling before and after weaning on the resistance of albino rats to later deprivation. Can. J. Psychol., 12, 103–7, 1958.

22.

Mednick

S. A.

, & Schulsinger

Some premarked characteristics related to breakdown in children with schizophrenic mothers. J. Psychiat. Res., 6 (Supplement 1), 267–91, 1968.

23.

Meier

G. W.

Infantile handling and development in Siamese kittens. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 54, 223–9, 1961.

24.

Meyers

W. J.

Critical period for facilitation of exploratory behavior by infantile experiences. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 55, 1099–101, 1962.

25.

Porter

R. H.

, & Wehmer

Maternaland infantile influences upon exploratory behavior and emotional reactivity in the albino rat. Developmental Psychobiology, 2, 19–25, 1969.

26.

Ressler

R. H.

Inherited environmental influences on the operant behavior of mice. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol, 61, 264–7, 1966.

27.

Rosenzweig

Krech

Bennett

E. L.

, & Diamond

Modifying brain chemistry by enrichment or impoverishment of experience. In Newton

and Levine

(Eds.) Early experience and behavior, C. C., Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1968.

28.

Shapiro

, & Buckovich

K. R.

Early experience effects on cortical dendrites: A proposed model for development. Science, 167, 292–4, 1970.

29.

Sontag

L. W.

The significance of fetal environmental differences. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynec., 42, 996–1003, 1941.

30.

Thompson

W. R.

Influences of prenatal maternal anxiety on emotionality young rats. Science, 125, 698–9, 1957.

31.

Thompson

W. D.

, & Sontag

L. W.

Behavioral effects in the offspring of rats subjected to audiogenic seizures during the gestation period. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 49, 454–61, 1956.

32.

Thompson

W. R.

Watson

and Charlesworth

W. R.

The effects of prenatal maternal stress on offspring behavior in rats. Psychol. Mono., 76, 1–26, 1962.