Path analysis was used to test a model designed to encapsulate the flow of influences theorized to exist between five types of musical performance and four factors derived from a researcher-administered questionnaire. Results, using a sample of 101 high school wind instrumentalists, reveal major differences in the pattern of influences leading to the re-creative skill of performing a repertoire of rehearsed music for a formal music examination, compared to the creative ability of improvising. Performing a repertoire of rehearsed music was found to be influenced most by an ability to sight-read, together with a factor consisting of variables concerned with the length of time a subject had been studying his or her instrument and taking lessons. In sharp contrast, an ability to improvise was most markedly influenced by an ability to play by ear. Results for this sample of instrumentalists exposed to a “traditional” style of teaching also suggest that instrumentalists' ability to sight-read may be influenced by how well they are able to play by ear.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Asmus, E. P. (1989). Factor analysis: A look at the technique through the data of Rainbow. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 101, 1–29.
2.
Bean, K L. (1938). An approach to the reading of music. Psychological Monographs, 226, 1–80.
3.
Bergan, J. R. (1967). The relationships among pitch identification, imagery for musical sounds, and musical memory. Journal of Research in Music Education, 15, 99–109.
4.
Colwell, R J. (1961). An investigation of achievement in music in the public schools of Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana.
5.
Dodson, T. A. (1983). Developing music reading skills: Research implications. Update: The Applications of Research in Music Education, 1(4), 3–6.
6.
Elliot, C. A. (1982). The relationships among instrumental sight-reading ability and seven selected predictor variables. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, 5–14.
7.
Elliot, C. A., & May, W. V. (1980). Relationships among ensemble participation, private instruction, and aural skill development. Journal of Research in Music Education, 28, 155–161.
8.
Fincher, B. (1983). The effects of playing the melody by rote during the prestudy procedure upon sight reading skill development of beginning class piano students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma.
9.
Fowler, C. B. (1987). What we know about the teaching and learning of music performance. Music Educators Journal, 73(7), 25–32.
10.
Froseth, J. O. (1971). Individualizing instruction in the beginning instrumental music class. Journal of Band Research, 8(1), 11–23.
11.
Froseth, J. O. (1985). A longitudinal study of the relationship of melodic ear-to-hand coordination and selected indices of musical achievement at the University of Michigan School of Music.Research presented to the Dean and Executive Committee of the School of Music: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
12.
Gamble, D. K (1989). A study of the effects of two types of tonal pattern instruction on the audiational and performance skills of first-year clarinet students. Doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Philadelphia.
13.
Gordon, E. E. (1989). Learning sequences in music.Chicago: GIA Publications.
14.
Gruson, L. M. (1988). Rehearsal skill and musical competence: Does practice make perfect? In J. A. Sloboda (Ed.), Generative processes in music (pp. 91–112). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
15.
Grutzmacher, P. A. (1987). The effect of tonal pattern training on the aural perception, reading recognition, and melodic sight-reading achievements of first-year instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35(3), 171–181.
16.
Joreskog, K G., & Sorbom, D. (1979). Advances in factor analysis and structural equation models.Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books.
17.
King, D. W. (1983). Field-dependence/field-independence and achievement in music reading. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983.
18.
Kohut, D. L. (1985). Musical performance: Learning theory and pedagogy.Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
19.
Luce, J. R. (1958). Sight-reading and ear playing abilities related to the training and backgrounds of instrumental music students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
20.
Luce, J. R. (1965). Sight-reading and ear playing abilities as related to instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 13, 101–109.
21.
MacKnight, C. B. (1975). Music reading ability of beginning wind instrumentalists after melodic instruction. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23, 23–34.
22.
Mainwaring, J. (1941). The meaning of musicianship: A problem in the teaching of music. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 11(3), 205–214.
23.
Markovich, V. A. (1985). An investigation of the effects of matching timbre and training on melodic ear-to-hand coordination of college music majors. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan.
24.
McPherson, G. E. (1993a). Factors and abilities influencing the development of visual, aural and creative performance skills in music and their educational implications (Doctoral dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54/04-A, 1277. (University Microfilms No. 9317278).
25.
McPherson, G. E. (1993b). Evaluating improvisational ability of high school instrumentalists. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 119, 11–20.
26.
McPherson, G. E. (1994). Factors and abilities influencing sightreading skill in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42, 217–231.
27.
McPherson, G. E. (1995). The assessment of musical performance: Development and validation of five new measures. Psychology of Music, 23, 142–161.
28.
McPherson, G. E. (1996). Five aspects of musical performance and their correlates. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 127, 115–121.
29.
Miller, R. E. (1988). Contributions of selected music skills to music sight-reading achievement and rehearsed reading achievement. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
30.
Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
31.
Petzold, R. G. (1960). The perception of music symbols in music reading by normal children and by children gifted musically. Journal of Experimental Education, 28, 271–319.
32.
Pratt, G. (1990). Aural awareness: Principles and practice.Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.
33.
Priest, P. (1989). Playing by ear: Its nature and application to instrumental learning. British Journal of Music Education, 6(2), 173–191.
34.
Regelski, T. A. (1975). Principles and problems of music education.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
35.
Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
36.
Regelski, T. A. (1975). Principles and problems of music education.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
37.
Rutkowski, J. (1992). Idea bank: Improvisation. Music Educators Journal, 78(8), 53–54.
38.
Schleuter, S. L. (1984). A sound approach to teaching instrumentalists: Application of content and learning sequences.Kent, OH: The Kent State University Press.
39.
Sloboda, J. A. (1993). Musical ability. (106-118). In K. Ackrill (Ed.), Ciba Foundation symposium 178: The origins and development of high ability.Chichester, England: Wiley.
40.
Sperti, J. (1970). Adaptation of certain aspects of the Suzuki method to the teaching of clarinet: An experimental investigation testing the comparative effectiveness of two different pedagogical methodologies (Doctoral dissertation, New York University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971, 32, 1557A–1558A. (University Microfilms No. 71-24, 833)
41.
Stivers, J. D. (1972). A reliability and validity study of the Watkins-Farum Performance Scale. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Chanpaign-Urbana.
42.
Suzuki, S. (1983). Nurtured by love (2nd ed.). New York: Smithtown.
43.
Thackray, R. M. (1968). Creative music in education.London: Novello.
44.
Thackray, R. M. (1975). Some thoughts on aural training. Australian Journal of Music Education, 17, 25–30.
45.
Thackray, R. M. (1978). Aural awakening.Perth, Western Australia: University of Western Australia Press.
46.
Watkins, J. G., & Farnum, S. E. (1954). The Watkins-Farnum performance scale: A standardised achievement test for all band instruments.Winona, MN: Hal Leonard.
47.
Weaver, H. E. (1943). Studies of ocular behaviour in music reading. Psychological Monographs, 55, 1–29.
48.
Webster, P. R. (1977). A factor of intellect approach to creative thinking in music. Doctoral dissertation, Eastman School of Music, The University of Rochester, Rochester, New York.
49.
Wolf, T. (1976). A cognitive model of musical sight-reading. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 143–172.
