The Effects on Driving Speed of a Head-Up Display of Road Warnings

Abstract

This study investigated the superimposition of the projected markings on the road with head-up display, as well as their effects on the driver's speed. Two experiments were conducted. In Exp. 1, driving operations were simulated with a desktop computer to assess 18 deceleration markings (from the factors position, shape, and color) and determined the factors and levels influencing driving speeds. Based on the results of Exp. 1, six deceleration markings (from the factors shape and color) were selected in the driving simulator for conducting Exp. 2. The results of Exp. 1 showed that markings at the sides were better than the markings in the center. In Exp. 2, there was no significant difference between the effects of the arrangement of markings and the change of shape and color on driving stability. Yellow and white colors had no significant effect on speed; however, bar markings were better than zigzag markings. The results indicated that the projection of markings on a head-up display was helpful for indicating necessary deceleration.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Antin

J. F.

Dingus

T. A.

Hulse

M. C.

, & Wierwille

W. W.

(1986) Human factors test and evaluation of an automobile moving-map navigation system. Part II: Methodology issues–effectiveness, efficiency, and strategy. (Report CR-861 12105) Warren, MI: General Motors Research Laboratories.

Azuma

(1997) A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6, 355–385.

Azuma

Baillot

Behringer

Feiner

Julier

, & MacIntyre

(2001) Recent advances in augmented reality. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 21(6), 34–47.

Blakemore

M. R.

, & Snowden

R. J.

(1999) The effect of contrast on perceived speed: a general phenomenon? Perception, 28, 33–48.

Blakemore

M. R.

, & Snowden

R. J.

(2000) Textured backgrounds alter perceived speed. Vision Research, 40, 629–638.

Bliss

, & Acton

S. A.

(2003) Alarm mistrust in automobiles: how collision alarm reliability affects driving. Applied Ergonomics, 34, 499–509.

Burney

(1977) Behaviour of drivers on yellow bar patterns: experiment on Alton By-pass, Hampshire. (TRRL Supplementary Report 263) Crowthorne, UK: Transport and Road Research Laboratory.

Charlton

(2003) Development of a road safety engineering modelling tool. Hamilton, New Zealand: Univer. of Waikato and TERNZ Limited.

Charlton

S. G.

, & Baas

P. H.

(2006) Speed change management for New Zealand roads. (Research Report 300) Waterloo Quay, Wellington, New Zealand: Land Transport New Zealand.

10.

Charlton

S. G.

, & de Pont

J. J.

(2007) Curve speed management. (Research Report 323) Waterloo Quay, Wellington, New Zealand: Land Transport New Zealand.

11.

Colás

B. A. M.

, & Robert Bosch

GmbH

. (2013) Vision and roadmap towards fully automated driving. Washington, DC: SAE International.

12.

Debell

(2003) White lines: study shows their absence may be a safety plus. Traffic Engineering and Control, 44(9), 316–317.

13.

Denton

G. G.

(1973) The influence of visual pattern on perceived speed at Newbridge M8 Midlothian. (TRL Report LR 531) Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory

14.

Department for Transport. (1986) Transverse yellow bar markings at roundabouts. (Departmental Standard TD 6/79) London, UK: Department of Transport.

15.

De Ward

Jessunen

Steyvers

F. J. J. M.

Raggat

P. T. F.

, & Brookhuis

K. A.

(1995) Effect of road layout and road environment on driving performance, drivers' physiology and road appreciation. Ergonomics, 38(7), 1395–1407.

16.

Giusti

Zocchi

, & Rovetta

(2009) A noninvasive system for evaluating driver vigilance level examining both physiological and mechanical data. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 10, 127–134.

17.

Global Road Safety Partnership. (2008) Speed management: a road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners. Retrieved January 18, 2011, from http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/ref_mats/fhwasa09028/resources/Speed_management_manual.pdf.

18.

Godley

Triggs

, & Fildes

(2004) Perceptual lane width, wide perceptual road centre markings and driving speeds. Ergonomics, 47(3), 237–256.

19.

Haynes

Copley

Farmer

, & Helliar-Symons

R. D.

(1993) Yellow bar markings on motorway slips. (TRL Report RP49) Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory.

20.

Helliar-Symons

R. D.

(1981) Yellow bar experimental carriageway markings: accident study. (TRL Report LR1010) Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory.

21.

Reed

, & Spence

(2007) Multisensory in-car warning signals for collision avoidance. Human Factors, 49, 1107–1114.

22.

, & Spence

(2005) Assessing the effectiveness of various auditory cues in capturing a driver's visual attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 157–174.

23.

Jackson

J. S. H.

, & Blackman

(1994) A driving-simulator test of Wilde's risk homeostasis theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(6), 950–958.

24.

Jamson

Lai

Jamson

Horrobin

, & Carsten

(2008) Interaction between speed choice and road environment. (Road Safety Research Report 100) London, UK: Department for Transport, Institute for Transport Studies, Univer. of Leeds.

25.

Joksch

H. C.

(1993) Velocity change and fatality risk in a crash. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 25, 103–104.

26.

Kallberg

V. P.

(1993) Reflector posts: signs of danger? (Transportation Research Record 1403) Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. Pp. 57–66.

27.

Kramer

A. F.

Cassavaugh

Horrey

W. J.

Becic

, & Mayhugh

J. L.

(2007) Influence of age and proximity warning devices on collision avoidance in simulated driving. Human Factors, 49, 935–949.

28.

Lee

J. D.

McGehee

D. V.

Brown

T. L.

, & Reyes

M. L.

(2002) Collision warning timing, driver distraction, and driver response to imminent rear-end collisions in a high-fidelity driving simulator. Human Factors, 44, 314–334.

29.

Lees

, & Lee

J. D.

(2007) The influence of distraction and driving context on driver response to imperfect collision warning systems. Ergonomics, 30, 1264–1286.

30.

Maltz

, & Shinar

(2004) Imperfect in-vehicle collision avoidance warning systems can aid drivers. Human Factors, 46, 357–366.

31.

Maycock

Brocklebank

P. J.

, & Hall

R. D.

(1998) Road layout design standards and driver behavior. (TRL Report No. 332) Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory.

32.

McKee

S. P.

, & Smallman

H. S.

(1998) Size and speed constancy. In Walsh

& Kulikowski

J. J.

(Eds.), Perceptual constancies: why things look like they do? New York: Cambridge Univer. Press. Pp. 373–408.

33.

Milgram

, & Kishino

(1994) A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D (12), 1321–1329.

34.

Ogden

K. W.

(1996) Safer roads: a guide to road safety engineering. Hampshire, UK: Avebury Technical.

35.

Quimby

Maycock

Palmer

, & Buttress

(1999) The factors that influence a driver's choice of speed: a questionnaire study. (TRL Report No. 325) Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory.

36.

Schall

Jr. Rusch

Lee

Vecera

, & Rizzo

(2010) Attraction without distraction: effects of augmented reality cues on driver hazard perception. Journal of Vision, 10, 236.

37.

U.S. Department of Transportation. (2011) Speed management program. Retrieved April 8, 2014, from http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/speedmgmtcharter.pdf.

38.

Van der Horst

A. R. A.

, & Hoekstra

(1994) Testing speed reduction designs for 80 kilometer per hour roads with a simulator. (Transportation Research Record 1464) Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. Pp. 63–68.

39.

Van Krevelen

D. W. F.

, & Poelman

(2010) A survey of augmented reality technologies, applications and limitations. International Journal of Virtual Reality, 9(2), 1–20.

40.

Verster

J. C.

, & Roth

(2011) Standard operation procedures for conducting the on-the-road driving test, and measurement of the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP). International Journal of General Medicine, 4, 359–371.

41.

Wilde

G. J. S.

(1988) Risk homeostasis theory and traffic accidents: propositions, deductions and discussion of dissension in recent reactions. Ergonomics, 31, 441–468.

42.

Yeh

, & Wickens

C. D.

(2001) Display signaling in augmented reality: effects of cue reliability and image realism on attention allocation and trust calibration. Human Factors, 43, 355–365.