Buff,Tough,and Rough: Representations of Muscularity in Action Motion Pictures

Abstract

Although the muscular mesomorphic body may be the most common one appearing in mass media, the prevalence of muscularity and the ways in which this body is coded characterologically in motion pictures have not been investigated. To examine this topic, a content analysis was conducted on a random sample of top-grossing action films from 1980 to 2006. Results demonstrate that actors in this genre have shown a parallel trend toward increasing leanness and muscularity over the last several decades. As well, in comparison to their less muscular counterparts, those with muscular physiques were more likely to be romantically involved, evidenced higher levels of aggression, experienced more positive outcomes, and were more likely to be objectified.

Keywords

muscularity body-image content analysis media gender

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Anderson

A. E.

, & DiDomenico

(1992). Diet vs. shape content of popular male and female magazines: A dose-response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 283–287.

Benwell

(2003). Masculinity and men's lifestyle magazines. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Cafri

, & Thompson

J. K.

(2004). Measuring male body image: A review of the current methodology. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 18–29.

Cafri

Thompson

J. K.

Ricciardelli

McCabe

Smolak

, & Yesalis

(2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 215–239.

Cohan

, & Hark

I. R.

(1993). Screening the male: Exploring masculinities in Hollywood cinema. London: Routledge.

Connell

(1995). Masculinities. Oxford: Polity Press.

Ellis

S. R.

, & Morrison

T. G.

(2005). Stereotypes of ageing: Messages promoted by age-specific paper birthday cards available in Canada. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 61, 57–73.

Flood

(2003). Men, sex and mateship: How homosociality shapes men's heterosexual relations. Paper presented to (Other) Feminisms: An International Women's and Gender Studies Conference, University of Queensland, 12–16 July.

Fouts

, & Burggraf

(1999). Television situation comedies: Female body images and verbal reinforcements. Sex Roles, 40, 473–481.

10.

Fouts

, & Vaughan

(2002). Television situation comedies: Male weight, negative references, and audience reactions. Sex Roles, 46, 439–442.

11.

Frederick

D. A.

Fessler

D. M.

, & Haselton

M. G.

(2005). Do representations of male muscularity differ in men and women's magazines? Body Image, 2, 81–86.

12.

Ging

(2005). A “manual on masculinity”? The consumption and use of mediated images among teenage boys in Ireland. Irish Journal of Sociology, 14, 29–52.

13.

Greenberg

B. S.

Eastin

Hofschire

Lachlan

, & Brownell

K. D.

(2003). Portrayals of overweight and obese individuals on commercial television. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1342–1348.

14.

Hatoum

I. J.

, & Belle

(2004). Mags and abs: Media consumption and bodily concerns in men. Sex Roles, 51, 397–407.

15.

Hayes

A. F.

, & Krippendorff

(2007). Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication Methods and Measures, 1, 77–89.

16.

Herbozo

Tantleff-Dunne

Gokee-Larose

, & Thompson

J. K.

(2004). Beauty and thinness messages in children's media: A content analysis. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 12, 21–34.

17.

Hildebrandt

Langenbucher

, & Schlundt

D. G.

(2004). Muscularity concerns among men: Development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image, 1, 169–181.

18.

Holmland

(2002). Impossible bodies: Femininity and masculinity at the movies. London: Routledge.

19.

Jakatdar

T. A.

Cash

T. F.

, & Engle

E. K.

(2006). Body image thought processes: The development and initial validation of the assessment of body-image cognitive distortions. Body Image, 3, 325–333.

20.

Klein

, & Shiffman

K. S.

(2006). Messages about physical attractiveness in animated cartoons. Body Image, 3, 353–363.

21.

Kolbe

R. H.

, & Albanese

P. J.

(1996). Man to man: A content analysis of sole-male images in male audience magazines. Journal of Advertising, 25, 1–20.

22.

Leit

R. A.

Gray

J. J.

Harrison

, & Pope

H. G.

Jr. (2001). The media's representation of the ideal male body: A cause for muscle dysmorphia? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 334–338.

23.

Leit

R. A.

Pope

H. G.

Jr. , & Gray

J. J.

(2000). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl centrefolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 90–93.

24.

Lin

C. A.

(1998). Uses of sex appeals in prime-time television commercials. Sex Roles, 38, 461–475.

25.

Lorenzen

L. A.

Grieve

F. G.

, & Thomas

(2004). Exposure to muscular male models decreases men's body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 51, 773–780.

26.

McCabe

M. P.

, & Ricciardelli

L. A.

(2003). Body image and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle mass among boys and girls. Health Psychology, 22, 39–46.

27.

McCreary

, & Sasse

(2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls, Journal of American College Health, 48, 297–304.

28.

McIntosh

W. D.

Bazzini

D. G.

Smith

S. M.

, & Wayne

S. M.

(1998). Who smokes in Hollywood? Characteristics of smokers in popular films from 1940 to 1989. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 395–398.

29.

Morrison

T. G.

Kalin

, & Morrison

M. A.

(2004). Body image evaluation and investment among adolescents: A test of sociocultural and social comparison theories. Adolescence, 39, 571–592.

30.

Morrison

T. G.

Morrison

M. A.

, & Hopkins

(2003). Striving for bodily perfection? An exploration of the drive for muscularity in Canadian men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4, 111–120.

31.

Norusis

M. J.

(2000). SPSS 10.0 guide to data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

32.

Olivardia

Pope

H. G.

Jr. , & Hudson

J. I.

(2000). Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: A case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1291–1296.

33.

Pope

H. G.

Gruber

Magweth

Bureau

deCol

Jovent

(2000). Body image perceptions among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1297–1301.

34.

Pope

H. G.

Olivardia

Gruber

, & Borowiecki

(1999). Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 65–72.

35.

Ricciardelli

L. A.

McCabe

M. P.

, & Banfield

(2000). Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys: Role of parents, friends, and media. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 189–197.

36.

Smith

S. M.

McIntosh

W. D.

, & Bazzini

D. G.

(1999). Are the beautiful good in Hollywood? An investigation of the beauty-and-goodness stereotype on film. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 69–80.

37.

Smolak

Murnen

S. K.

, & Thompson

J. K.

(2005). Sociocultural influences and muscle building in adolescent boys. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 227–239.

38.

Sommers-Flanagan

, & Davis

(1993). What's happening on music television? A gender-role content analysis. Sex Roles, 28, 745–753.

39.

Thompson

J. K.

, & Tantleff

(1992). Female and male ratings of upper torso: Actual, ideal, and stereotypical conceptions. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 345–354.

40.

Tiggemann

, & Slater

(2003). Thin ideals in music television: A source of social comparison and body dissatisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 48–58.

41.

Vartanian

R. A.

Giant

C. L.

, & Passino

R. M.

(2001). “Ally McBeal vs. Arnold Schwarzenegger”: Comparing mass media, interpersonal feedback and gender as predictors of satisfaction with body thinness and muscularity. Social Behaviour and Personality, 29, 711–724.

42.

Watson

(2000). Male bodies: Health, culture, and identity. Buckingham: Open University Press.