Abstract
In the field of international human resource management, a widely held assumption identifies expatriation as a completely enriching experience which provides employees with knowledge of high value and contributes to enhancing general management capacity [24]. This research investigates the effect of expatriation on knowledge transfer as a driver for innovation and performance. The study uses the case of international faculty in a higher education institution to shed light on the interplay between sharing international experiences, facilitating knowledge transfer, and generating value. Following a thorough literature review, research on knowledge transfer processes within the education sector remains limited. We still have little guidance on the mechanisms enabling knowledge transfer inside universities, particularly when promoting faculty mobility or hiring international faculty and researchers. This research adopts a single case study method while using Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, an international higher education institution, as a context of investigation. The study involved international faculty from the schools of engineering, business, and humanities and also Moroccan faculty who received their education abroad to explore the processes of experience and knowledge sharing among diverse workforce and how such processes could lead to creating a space for knowledge transfer that enables in turn better innovation and performance. The findings of this research show the limited knowledge transfer dynamics inside internationally-oriented higher education institutions and demonstrate the importance of adopting human resource development practices as facilitating mechanisms to support knowledge transfer while involving and benefitting various stakeholders. The study suggests different developmental venues for universities to support knowledge transfer from international faculty including teamwork, training and faculty orientation, collaborative research projects, resources and incentives, and industry-oriented educational and consulting programs. This research has the potential to lay the foundations of a theoretical framework integrating knowledge transfer and value generation dynamics within the context of higher education.
Literature review
Expatriation and knowledge transfer
In the global knowledge economy, achievement and growth are no longer determined by means of the quantity and quality of visible assets like land, materials, and capital. More importantly, invisible assets as knowledge and innovation are increasingly more diagnosed as shaping, sustaining, and advancing the competitive advantage of organizations [27]. The significance of creating, sustaining, applying, sharing, and renewing such assets to enhance organizational performance has been widely highlighted by researchers. International organizations may additionally require numerous management practices to facilitate knowledge transfer [29]. Examples of conditions in international organizations to facilitate knowledge transfer include supporting human resources from different cultures to work collectively and efficiently, to seize information from employees as they exchange employers, and share information between different units inside the same organization [1]. Knowledge transfer activities are actually considered key to the success of organizations [15]. Globalization has made everyone closer. In human resources, there is not only one type of employee but a culturally diverse workforce that is made by expatriates who are willing to go to another country to improve their skills and share what they know. Expatriation is connected to international mobility. In higher education, a study conducted by the Chronicle of Higher Education and Simpson Scarborough identified the factors that push professors to work abroad, while emphasizing a number of important components that were significant to both faculty and administrators [8]. The most significant goal for 74% of faculty and administrators was the probability of immersing themselves in a new culture. After this mutual attraction, the discoveries varied somewhat but in ways that make sense for the participating groups. Forty-nine percent of professors were motivated by research opportunities, 43% by lifelong desire to work abroad, and 40% by the opportunity to expose their families to different cultures and languages.
Expatriation may be considered sophisticated through its potential to transfer knowledge that is learned through human interaction or behavioral observation. The growing complexity of knowledge being transferred inside international organizations confers even more ability and strategic significance on expatriation as an effective knowledge transfer mechanism. However, there still exists a need for empirical studies into factors which could hinder or enhance the value-adding activities of expatriates while regarded as mechanisms of knowledge transfer [22]. Knowledge transfer is far from being a smooth procedure particularly in the event of a geographical and cultural distance. Literature considers international assignments as one of the most effective methods to facilitate knowledge transfer inside international organizations [21]. In the field of international human resource management, a widely held assumption considers expatriation as a completely enriching experience which provides employees with knowledge of high value for the organization. Expatriation can also support the continuous enhancement of general management capacity. According to numerous authors, global experience increases individuals’ information about the global management structure of the organization and helps to create a higher understanding of the global environment [24]. In higher education, the mobility of college professors and researchers remains exceptionally under-explored compared to that of students. Even though a developing frame of studies has begun to shed light on the scale, styles, and complexities of such a phenomenon across borders, disciplines, and career ranges. International lecturers and college students are examples of agents who, through their socialization, absorb knowledge and engage in the emergence of comparative views that facilitate the creation of knowledge of differences in terms of working methods, learning, profession paths, levels of international engagement, and broader features of different cultures. Transnationally oriented researchers are fluent in the communicative, cultural, and knowledge transfer practices in exceptional places, they understand information inside the context of its production and storage, and are able to translate and reapply it to different contexts with which they may be equally familiar [6].
Knowledge Transfer is usually emphasized as a vital concern for maintainable competitive advantage of an organization. Past studies have demonstrated the importance of knowledge transfer to organizational development and the establishment of long-term competitiveness [16]. However, a few have examined the fundamental organizational forms that actually develop and transfer knowledge in organizations. Knowledge can be complex, floating, and, often hidden in regular routines and norms, stored in organizations via documentation and precise mechanisms. Knowledge transfer includes stages of knowledge acquisition, communication, application, acceptance, and incorporation, as a weapon to create competence. Knowledge transfer involves passed on and diffusing activity; explicit knowledge is transferred by database, file systems or books, and implicit knowledge can be transferred only through interpersonal collaboration [33]. Social factors, including trust and commitment, also represent important factors for knowledge transfer activity. Integrative components play a key role in exchanging knowledge between individuals, across departments and subsidiaries. Particularly, in multinationals the international transfer of knowledge is influenced by mechanisms that emerge from organizational structures. Organizational structure builds up reserved patterns of authority, responsibility and communication, and influences informal interaction and cooperation [5]. According to Levine & Piertula (2013), each employee, with different educational background, professional experience, geographical expertise, and other variables, represent an individual combination of knowledge. Such a common heterogeneity enables specialization, differentiation, and knowledge transfer.
Knowledge transfer and innovation
Stable innovation refers to the adaptation of knowledge into new products, services, or procedures (or altering new changes). Original new knowledge is generated by the uses of resources and, more particularly, through new ways of exchanging and joining resources which reflects the organization’s dynamic capability of continually exploiting existing intangible resources while exploring and building new idiosyncratic assets [17]. Therefore, innovation involves the capacity to combine and exchange knowledge resources. Knowledge and innovation originate from both internal and external sources; yet, in recent strategy and innovation research studies, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on sources that are external to the organization [13]. These sources are the positive externalities that firms receive in terms of knowledge from the environment in which they function. In particular, interorganizational relationships create opportunities for knowledge acquisition and exploitation. These external relationships developed by firms can be understood as those that are developed in a group. In a firm network, knowledge transfer can happen through direct interactions among employees. We spot three markers, or components, of knowledge transfer including cooperation between firms, workforce mobility, and the activity of supporting institutions. As regards workforce mobility, the displacement of workers among firms in the same industry enables the preservation of knowledge acquired by workers within the industry [18]. A high rate of workforce mobility, especially of managers and technicians, facilitates low-cost strategic knowledge transmission.
Innovation is seen as a knowledge management process in the organizational context, and organizations are considered as knowledge creating sources. Involving and empowering motivated employees allows better discovery and utilization of local knowledge in the organization. Innovative performance is highly related to the involvement of employees who are able to participate in decision making, while delegating responsibilities and collecting employee ideas [2]. According to Hinloopen (2004), the innovation performance of organizations is primarily determined by their own innovative activities and the interaction with their innovation-related environments as they differ across countries. Innovation performance is enhanced by three distinct and highly complementary factors including market knowledge, cross-functional collaboration, and knowledge integration mechanisms. Market knowledge is the firm’s knowledge about its customers and competitors. Cross functional collaboration is the degree of representation by marketing, research and development, and other functional units in the product innovation process. Knowledge integration mechanisms represent the formal processes and structures that care about the analysis, interpretation, and integration of market and other types of knowledge in various units of the organization. To innovate successfully, firms combine the knowledge developed and accumulated within various units with knowledge sourced externally [32]. The organization’s endeavors to combine both knowledge codification and personalization strategies contribute to enhancing its operational effectiveness, while engaging employees in systematic learning and innovation-driven activities, which leads in turn to improved performance [10]. Seng & Idris [26] recognize managerial values and government policies as two major factors affecting the relationship between knowledge transfer and innovation as they encourage firms to facilitate knowledge transfer through human resource development activities, including for instance training, lifelong learning, teamwork and collaborative projects, which results hence in strengthening process quality and efficiency and in generating distinctive and value-adding competences such as creativity and innovativeness.
The locus of problem solving and organizational solutions is often dispersed across the organization’s subunits, such as departments, groups, or projects. Therefore, knowledge held by the members from one subunit can help to solve the problems in another if the subunits would engage in transferring their knowledge. Knowledge transfer broadens and improves the knowledge base of an organization [11]. Organization members who receive more accurate knowledge are likely to become sensitive to customers’ needs, respond more promptly to their demands, and better fulfil their requirements. Leveraging on an organization’s knowledge base, can thus increase growth and market share. An organizational unit possessing a central network position can access new information from numerous other units. Such a central network position will have a more positive impact on the unit’s innovation yield and business performance in case the unit has high absorptive capacity that successfully enables the exchange of knowledge from other units [31]. Innovation is considered as the main aid of corporations but with time it has become more complex and costly which has been pushing firms to acquire knowledge and skills through collaborations. Innovation is also the base for organizational survival that is highlighted by knowledge transfer through research and development [4]. Open Innovation method is a new way of knowledge transfer, and thus any form of cooperation with third parties that can contribute to improving the long-term performance of an organization [7].
Expatriate knowledge and innovation
Expatriates or international employees when working in a foreign environment they bring new knowledge which leads to innovative results. Expatriates are thus tools of disseminating knowledge, as they facilitate knowledge sharing beyond borders. As expatriates work in several units abroad and foreign environments, they develop their abilities to extract knowledge from different sources which facilitates in turn the development of their cultural understanding and technical skills. To share knowledge, expatriates need an encouraging environment with colleagues willing to learn, exchange experiences, work collaboratively to build new competences, and engage in continuous performance improvement [20]. The open communication that expatriates are exposed to, lead to a creative boost and thus to better performance. A more encouraging management and work environment, pushes the employee to share his/her ideas and to be more resourceful. As employees are encouraged to create and collaborate with their international colleagues, expatriates will find the right resources and a welcoming atmosphere that will help them bring their own vision and participate actively in improving the productivity of the organization.
Knowledge transfer in higher education consists particularly of linking teaching and research to benefit student learning and also professors. Research and teaching are coupled activities and do not really have a well-defined link. Academic departments should develop this link and base it on research or teaching. In research-based departments, students are uninformed following the high quality research discovered within these departments due to poor transfer mechanisms. In such contexts, departments can help students appreciate the value of research by creating a flow from research into teaching. Transferring research into teaching in research-based departments is, therefore, seen as an important task that needs prompt attention. According to Senaratne & Amaratunga (2008) the difficulty of a knowledge transfer process relies on different factors: a) the strength of relationships between the research staff and students influences the effectiveness of the transfer; b) direct transfer of research findings to students can create ambiguity and misunderstanding of the research which requires the simplification of project research outputs to suit the student audience; c) the capacity of students to understand and absorb depends on their initial knowledge. Students can be given an introduction to the basic research process and at a higher level they can access direct research experience; d) reliability of research results is an important factor in transferring research knowledge into teaching. Research needs to be of interest, relevance, and utility to students; e) motivation is an influencing factor during knowledge transfer. Not only staff motivation but also student motivation is required in creating the teaching/research link, which could be facilitated through cultural change. Effective knowledge transfer does not involve only transmission but also the absorption of the information and its appropriate use [27]. Feeding research knowledge into teaching is insufficient; the transfer needs to ensure that such knowledge is absorbed and used by students. Discussions and observations are good tools for helping the students discover and find out about the research of their professors. The dissemination of research knowledge depends on its usefulness to the user and also the absorptive capacity of the users. Knowledge transfer from faculty to students and other colleagues is vital to both the process of education and to the quality of the studies and research projects that are produced. Willingness to make open, sincere, and complete transfer of necessary knowledge is an ethical responsibility of faculty. Internationally experienced researchers and professors help other new researchers, their students, and the university administration to direct their learning and management activities towards more innovation-driven focus encompassing teaching, research, service, and administrative processes. Professors can be excellent sources of important and stimulating perspectives as their unique insights, can stimulate important new scientific discoveries while benefitting all university stakeholders. In the context of higher education, knowledge transfer should follow four main stages: a) initiation, linking knowledge and needs, b) implementation focusing on resource flow between involved parties, c) ramp-up that emphasizes using and experiencing knowledge, and d) integration, that determines achievement and results [30].
In the existing literature, the process of how international faculty facilitate knowledge transfer in higher education and the impact of such a dynamic activity on performance and innovation remains unexplored. Knowledge transfer is a new concept that is still not well defined by scholars particularly in the field of higher education. Research is still required to shed light on the sociological and psychological tendencies affecting knowledge sharing and transfer processes. Littre guidance is provided on the barriers to knowledge transfer, including for instance the ambiguity, the nature of relationships between employees and collaborators, or the individual incapacity to absorb knowledge, among others. Research is needed to disentangle the complexities revolving around the facilitating and encouraging tools for knowledge transfer in higher education, including factors related to cultural determinants, human resource development, and communication.
This paper builds on the existing literature to generate better understanding of how knowledge transfer as facilitated by international faculty occurs in a Moroccan higher education institution to generate innovation and performance results. Specifically, this research focuses on the process of knowledge transfer in a diverse workforce, the atmosphere enabling knowledge transfer dynamics, and the innovation resulting from such knowledge transfer.
Research design
For the purpose of this research, a single case study approach is adopted, in the context of Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, an international higher education institution in Morocco, employing more than 40% of international faculty and following an American-based system of education that encourages student and faculty mobility and international programs. A single case approach provides a good level of detail and understanding as it helps describe the phenomenon under scrutiny and produce better theory (Gustafson, 2017). International faculty and Moroccan professors who received their training and education abroad were involved from the three schools of engineering (SSE), business administration (SBA), and humanities and social sciences (SHSS) to shed light on the interplay between workforce diversity and knowledge exchange dynamics. A triangulation methodology was implemented for data collection [19]. First, interviews were conducted with the three deans to gain insights on the collaborative mechanisms and knowledge dynamics involving faculty in each school or across schools. Second, a questionnaire was administered to 35 faculty, with at least 2 years of seniority and selected randomly, to better grasp various perspectives on experience sharing, project and idea development, and knowledge transfer, while considering the supporting and hindering factors of such processes. Finally, archival data were also used to gather relevant information on innovation and performance results from annual reports in terms of research projects, conferences, publications etc. Data was first extracted, reported, and categorized under three different themes, representing the research purpose and objectives (i.e. hiring and integration of international faculty, knowledge transfer dynamics, and innovation/performance). A content analysis methodology was then followed to identify the mechanisms underpinning knowledge transfer, the factors supporting or hindering such dynamics, and the consequences of such processes in terms of innovation and performance results. A pattern matching approach, as a relevant tool to identify the linkages between research items [34], was also used to emphasize the relationships involving the studied constructs and build connections between human resource development practices, knowledge transfer dynamics, and the university’s strategic orientations in terms of internationalization, innovation, and growth.
The following section presents the research findings. First, we introduce the mechanisms and platforms whereby international faculty are encouraged to integrate the university’s academic processes. Second, we give an overview of the significant competences enabling faculty to engage in innovation-driven knowledge transfer in various areas. Then, we explore the supporting and hindering mechanisms for knowledge transfer as identified at various levels, while placing much emphasis on management and human resource development requirements. Finally, we show the most significant results and performance improvement consequences of knowledge transfer inside the university, while pointing out the impact limitations of such dynamics.
Research findings
The purpose of the questionnaire was to find out how research collaboration occurs among faculty to facilitate combinative knowledge development, what factors are encouraging or hindering such research collaboration, and the knowledge transfer activities they have been engaging in to generate new projects and research outcomes. 35 faculty filled out the questionnaire, 33,3% were females and 66,6% were males.
As regards the teaching experience and faculty involvement in collaborative research projects, the majority of the participating faculty have been in the higher education system between 2 to 23 years. Besides, 95% of faculty expressed a positive attitude towards working in an international environment. Most international faculty have had working experiences abroad and found the Moroccan context very supportive for their integration. In the same perspective, Moroccan professors, did not encounter any issues working with international peers and expressed their flexibility to adjust to new working habits and processes, as such experiences represent fundamental sources of inspiration, resulting in new ideas for future improvement. For the majority of faculty, what matters is to work with peers who are passionate about what they do to ensure positive influence and facilitate knowledge transfer. All faculty considered knowledge diversity as a necessary condition for building complementarities and synergies that enable the development or the implementation of new collaborative educational and research projects. Peers use their unique knowledge to support each other, to facilitate understanding and interactions, and engage in knowledge exchange. 98% of faculty have been through collaborative working processes and projects involving various nationalities. Examples of such projects include the design and delivery of online English classes, service learning, the leadership institute, the minor in English, multidisciplinary classes with the participation of SSE and SHSS professors, the satellite project by SSE faculty, collaborative lectures in astrophysics as carried out by SHSS and SSE faculty, brown bags, lecture series, among others.
Other knowledge sharing platforms include community service initiatives involving Moroccan and international faculty, the center for learning excellence that offers opportunities for discussion and collective learning, the ATLAS center that organizes workshops for faculty on teaching and learning innovation, the center for learning technologies that promotes online education services, and the new faculty orientation sessions held at the beginning of each semester to help new hires socialize with their peers and to ensure their smooth integration into the university’s working environment.
Most of faculty have also mentioned specific skills and abilities that support knowledge transfer, including the capacity to empower students and peers, emotional intelligence, familiarity with the teaching atmosphere, and cultural sensitivity. Faculty recognized the importance of collaborative educational and research projects to support their learning. For instance, faculty through peer-class observation can give feedback about teaching methods and engage in discussions that could lead to sharing innovative pedagogical practices that will benefit the students. However, faculty mentioned a few factors that hinder knowledge sharing and transfer, including the lack of motivation and enthusiasm of some faculty to engage in collective and team-based working processes, the limited number of systematic and constant faculty developmental programs to share ideas and encourage group discussions, and the students’ resistance to adapt to innovative learning approaches.
The deans considered the amount of collaboration among faculty as being limited. 30% of professors are currently involved in collaborative educational and research projects but the others still do not perceive the value of such working processes. Knowledge transfer depends on the willingness of faculty to learn from each other and to seek common objectives and interests. The question of motivation and enthusiasm sometime relates to the personality traits of professors, despite the environmental enablers. Culture also plays a fundamental role, particularly when individualism is rooted in social norms, values, and beliefs. Multidisciplinary research also requires further development. Such research collaboration is illustrated through books, projects, papers and publications, particularly in the SHSS. Teams of faculty, for instance, are putting efforts and creating synergies to facilitate the implementation of European projects, continuing education programs, and sustainable development initiatives. To encourage better research innovation, projects should be developed in groups with an adequate incentive package. Financial rewards remain a fundamental supporting mechanism to facilitate collaborative educational and research projects.
As regards the results of collaborative working processes and knowledge transfer activities among faculty, journal articles and publications represent 80% of current endeavors, particularly in the case of the SBA. Very few were performed with students (less than 1%). In the SSE, most of the papers were published by individual professors and only 2 were coauthored. On average, faculty participated in 8 projects per year. Most of those projects were carried out with professors from the same school. The results of collaborative work and knowledge transfer also include pedagogical innovation, community service in the region of Ifrane, and success rate of new graduates’ placement in the workplace. However, industry oriented impact in terms of patents, continuing education, and consulting remains limited. It is also worth mentioning the French language barrier that represents a hindering factor for international faculty to engage in such industry and market oriented services.
Discussion, recommendations, research implications and limitations
Discussion
The findings demonstrate the diversity of the working environment at the university and faculty involvement in collaborative working processes and knowledge transfer projects. Most of faculty engaged in collaborative educational and research projects including joint publications which is an indicator for knowledge transfer dynamics. However, the amount of such collaborative and knowledge sharing activities remains limited. Collaboration, synergies, and knowledge transfer take place mainly within externally funded research projects. Lack of motivation and enthusiasm has been mentioned as the most significant impediment, since faculty do not demonstrate willingness to engage in team-based educational and research initiatives. This is in line with what Senaratne & Amaratunga (2008) suggested. Such lack of motivation and enthusiasm has been explained through personality and cultural determinants. Such factors, however, could affect negatively any upcoming or potential collective initiative that would benefit the university and the students [9]. Other forms of collaborative work facilitating knowledge transfer include learning and technology centers, committee assignments, and new faculty orientation.
The limited number of training and developmental activities represents also another hinder to knowledge transfer. This affects in particular the possibility to share teaching practices and generate new ideas for pedagogical innovation. Better incentives and rewards could help in creating the adequate environment for knowledge sharing and collaborative working processes to foster innovation and performance particularly in research. The new working environment was not considered by international faculty a major hinder as they did not face any cultural shock. However, individualism may affect international faculty perception and create obstacles to potential knowledge sharing initiatives. Faculty were into joint sharing of research work and projects in other contexts compared to their schools. Students’ learning habits and attitudes do not allow faculty to experiment with innovative pedagogical approaches. Students are used to memorizing and traditional learning and assessment methods. Knowledge transfer mechanisms remain limited to research papers and publications. Encouraging factors to engage in common research collaboration, including passion to work with peers, are not always present, which hinders the development of an adequate knowledge transfer setting. The impact of knowledge transfer dynamics as occurring inside the university remains also limited as it does not reach out to external stakeholders, particularly industrial partners, through patents, continuing education, and consulting services [3]. The mastery of French language is still considered as a barrier for international faculty to participate in such knowledge transfer actions.
Recommendations
The research findings suggest potential venues on how to create the necessary conditions for knowledge transfer and leverage on faculty expertise to generate innovation and performance outcomes. A rewarding strategy should be implemented to foster collaborative working processes and synergetic research initiatives, while encouraging faculty to transcend the individual teaching assignments and to demonstrate openness towards collaborating with others. A measurement system is also needed to quantify the results of collaborative working activities at all levels, in teaching and research, and to use the outcomes to communicate about the importance of knowledge sharing as means to generate value for faculty and the institution. Such a measurement system should also help with strategic planning and goal setting for knowledge transfer activities. Linking the results of knowledge transfer to faculty performance appraisal and promotion decisions represents another major incentive to spur faculty to develop multicultural and multidisciplinary educational and research initiatives.
Involving students in research projects as led by faculty could also have the potential to fostering knowledge transfer activities. The university should also consider financial support for group projects, involving Moroccan and international faculty in collaboration with students. Systematic training and constant developmental activities emphasizing knowledge sharing and mentoring are also efficient mechanisms to facilitate joint collaboration, idea sharing and generation, and collective performance.
Research implications and limitations
This research has the potential the lay the foundations of a theoretical framework linking knowledge transfer as facilitated by international faculty, the encouraging factors contributing to knowledge transfer, and the innovation and performance outcomes resulting from such dynamics within the context of higher education. We believe this study sets a few directions on how to theorize knowledge transfer dynamics in higher education institutions as it relates to both educational and research activities. In terms of practical implications, this research suggests potential developmental and structural mechanisms that support knowledge transfer dynamics, also from a cultural perspective, and convert them into innovation and performance results.
However, more research is needed to shed light on the process of knowledge transfer and its performance consequences within the context of higher education. Multiple case study methods, multidisciplinary studies, and multicultural approaches have the potential to advance our understanding of such a phenomenon and develop theoretical frameworks and models supporting knowledge transfer effectiveness in higher education. The use of ethnographic methodologies and large faculty samples represents a potential research venue to assess the encouraging and hindering factors for effective knowledge transfer. The external environment as research dimension should also be incorporated in future analysis to determine the effect of innovation resulting from knowledge transfer within universities on industry, government, and society.