Hope,adaptability,and job-search intensity among individuals living with serious mental illness

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Increased intensity in job-search behavior is associated with important employment outcomes like job attainment. There is evidence that work hope, and career adaptability are important antecedents of higher job-search intensity. However, there is no evidence that these relationships exist among individuals living with serious mental illness.

OBJECTIVE:

This study seeks to improve our understanding of factors that contribute to job-search intensity among individuals living with serious mental illness.

METHODS:

Eighty-five individuals living with serious mental illness completed surveys of demographics, work hope, career adaptability, and job-search intensity. Correlational and regression analysis was used to examine the primary relationships in this study.

RESULTS:

Education level, employment status, and use of vocational rehabilitation services were background factors related to job-search intensity. Controlling for background factors, regression analysis found that work hope positively predicted job-search intensity, and career adaptability negatively predicted job-search intensity. Our model explained 35%of the variance in job-search intensity. Additionally, individuals who were employed had significantly higher career adaptability than individuals who were unemployed.

CONCLUSIONS:

Work hope and career adaptability are related to important vocational outcomes among individuals living with serious mental illness.

Keywords

Work hope career adaptability job search mental health serious mental illness

1 Introduction

Research consistently demonstrates that employment is important to the health and well-being of individuals living with serious mental illness (Dunn et al., 2008; Provencher et al., 2002). However, many people living with serious mental illness do not reap the benefits of employment as rates of unemployment among this group are extremely high (National Alliance on Mental Illness [NAMI], 2014). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2020), 19.3%of individuals living with a disability were employed, while 66.3%of individuals without disabilities were employed. Among individuals with serious mental illness, NAMI (2014) reports an unemployment rate of approximately 80%. While a wealth of research has led to vocational rehabilitation interventions that improve competitive employment rates among individuals with lived experience of serious mental illness (e.g., Individual Placement and Support) (Bond et al., 2008), more research is needed to continue improving vocational outcomes among people living with serious mental illnesses.

There is clear evidence that individuals engaging in high levels of job-search effort are most likely to obtain employment (Kanfer et al., 2001; Saks, 2006; van Hooft et al., 2014). Among individuals living with severe mental illness, specifically, studies have found that higher levels of job-searching behavior is related to better employment outcomes (Alverson et al., 2006; Corbiere, et al., 2011, 2017). Yet, qualitative research highlights the reality that people with disabilities often must work harder and put in extra effort into their job-searches to obtain employment (Jans et al., 2012).

While there is strong evidence that personal traits and individual beliefs impact the job-searching behaviors among the general population of individuals looking for work (Kanfer et al., 2001), relatively little is known about the antecedents of sustaining a potentially long-lasting and effortful job-search among individuals with mental illness. In an ethnographic observation study of 25 individuals living with serious mental illness, researchers found that younger age, stable relational/kinship networks, ethno-racial minority background, and capacity for coherent discourse were associated with active job-searching behaviors (Alverson et al., 2006). Another study found that length of time absent from the workplace and self-reported motivation to find competitive employment were both positively related to active job-searching among individuals who were unemployed and living with serious mental illness (Cobriere et al., 2011). Some of the findings of Cobriere et al. (2011) stand in contrast to Alverson et al. (2006) who did not find self-reported motivation to obtain a job as significantly related to active job-searching.

Given the limited research on this topic, with some conflicting findings regarding motivation and job-searching, there is a need to better understand factors that enhance the job-search behavior of individuals with severe mental illness. The motivational-self-regulatory theory of job-search behavior (see Kanfer et al., 2001), which defines job-searching as part of a self-regulated and volitional process of behavior that is influenced by personal and situational tendencies and conditions, serves as the framework for this study. This study seeks to examine how a motivational factor, in work hope, and a self-regulatory factor, in career adaptability, relate to job-searching behavior among individuals with severe mental illness. Both work hope and career adaptability have been identified as relevant internal resources for career development and life satisfaction among individuals living with disabilities (Santilli et al., 2014).

1.1 Work hope

Within the psychosocial rehabilitation community, hope is commonly referred to as a central component of recovery for individuals living with serious mental illness (Anczewska et al., 2018). Moreover, vocational rehabilitation providers consistently report that promoting and instilling hope is a critical ingredient of successful vocational rehabilitation practice (Larson et al., 2014; Tschopp et al., 2007). In the context of employment, however, definitions of hope vary. Juntunen and Wettersten’s (2006) offer one of the more robust theoretical foundations for their concept of work hope which they define as “a positive motivational state that is directed at work and work-related goals and is composed of the presence of work-related goals and both the agency and the pathways for achieving those goals” (Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006, p. 97). From this framework, work hope consists of three components: (1) work-related goals (anchor points), (2) thoughts about how to reach these work goals (pathways), and (3) motivation/willingness to achieve work-related goals (agency). A recent study demonstrated that work hope is mutable through a vocational intervention delivered to individuals with serious mental illness (Russinova et al., 2018). However, research has not yet linked work hope with vocational outcomes among individuals living with serious mental illness.

1.2 Career adaptability

Career adaptability is defined as a “psychosocial construct that denotes an individual’s readiness and resources for coping with current and imminent vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and personal traumas” (Savickas, 2005; p. 51). Savickas (2005) has identified four components of career adaptability that are each accompanied by important competencies: (1) concern, or one’s ability to plan and prepare for their vocational future, (2) control, or one’s sense of responsibility to construct their career, (3) curiosity, or one’s exploration of vocational possibilities, and (4) confidence, or one’s self-efficacy in solving career-related problems. Thus, career adaptability is comprised of the resources, strategies, and competencies needed to successfully engage in a variety of vocational tasks, such as job-searching or navigating job-transition. Research demonstrates that career adaptability is important to the employability (de Guzman & Choi, 2013) and job-search processes of individuals who are long-term unemployed (Koen et al., 2010). Whether or not career adaptability plays a role in the job-search process of individuals living with serious mental illness is unknown.

1.3 Purpose of the current study

Framed by the motivational-self-regulatory theory of job-searching, this study seeks to examine the relationships between work hope and career adaptability to job-search behavior among individuals living with serious mental illness and searching for jobs. Learning about factors that support increased job-searching activity among individuals with serious mental illness can identify important areas for intervention that support competitive employment outcomes. From a motivational-self-regulatory theory of job-search, hope could be considered as motive variable and career adaptability as a self-regulatory variable that encourage self-directed job-searching behaviors. Based on the literature, we hypothesize that work hope and career adaptability will positively predict job-searching behavior of individuals living with serious mental illness.

2 Method

2.1 Participants and procedures

Fliers advertising this study were posted to listservs and circulated among professional organizations specifically designed to support individuals living with serious mental illness. Recruitment was restricted to individuals who were 1) between the ages of 18 to 67, 2) diagnosed with a mental health condition that interfered in their ability to work or go to school and that they have received, or are currently receiving, treatment for their mental health condition such as hospitalizations, psychotherapy, or taking psychiatric medications, and 3) currently considering making a job change or are actively searching for a job. To increase generalizability of this study, we chose not to restrict participation to only individuals who were unemployed as individuals who are employed may also be searching for jobs for various reasons (e.g., underemployment, job dissatisfaction, etc.). Individuals who met our inclusion criteria, and who elected to participate in this study were directed to an online link to a battery of surveys uploaded to the Qualtrics platform. Prior to completing the survey, all participants completed an informed consent on the Qualtrics platform. We did not screen for a participants ability to give informed consent. Participants received a $20 gift card for their participation. This study was approved by the affiliated university Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Eighty-five individuals participated in this study. Most participants identified as male (61.2%) and the average age was 32.68 years (SD = 7.34). The majority of participants identified as Caucasian/White (56.5%), followed by Hispanic/Latino/a (27.1%); Asian/Asian American (10.6%); and African American or Black (4.7%). Diagnostically, participants endorsed having been diagnosed with one or more mental health condition with most reporting Generalized Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or Panic Disorder (38.9%), followed by Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder or Dysthymia (35.3%); Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD; 27.1%); Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Delusional Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Schizophrenia, or Schizoaffective Disorder (22.4%); and Bipolar I or II Disorder (11.8%). A majority of participants had an Associate’s Degree (48.2%), followed by Bachelor’s Degree (22.4%); graduate degree or technical school/training (each at 10.6%); and high school diploma (8.2%). With respect to employment status, most participants were employed (61.2%), but many were unemployed (38.8%). Participants who were employed had worked in their current job for an average of 40 months (M = 40.10; SD = 34.76) and participants who were unemployed had been out of the workforce for an average of 12 months (M = 11.72; SD = 23.40). Most reported having participated in a state or federal vocational rehabilitation service (68.2%).

2.2 Measures

2.2.1 Job-search behavior

The Job-Search Intensity Scale (JSIS; van Hooft, 2014), is a nine-item measure used to assess one’s level of engagement in job-search behavior. The JSIS asks respondents to rate the amount of time they spend engaging in different job-search activities (e.g., “preparing resumes,” “searching for jobs online,” “networking with family/friends,” etc.). Responses are measured with a 5-point, Likert-type scale with scores ranging from 1 (“No time at all”) to 5 (“Very much time”). Evidence of validity and reliability (van Hooft, 2014) have been previously reported. For this study, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.92.

2.2.2 Work hope

The Work Hope Scale (WHS; Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006) was used to measure one’s level of work hope. In addition to total work hope, the WHS measures the three specific dimensions of work hope: goals, pathways, and agency. The WHS is comprised of 24-items that uses a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly Agree) with higher score reflecting higher work hope. Sample items include “I think I will end up doing what I really want to do at work” and “I know how to prepare for the kind of work I want to do.” The WHS has demonstrated reliability and validity among individuals from marginalized backgrounds (Juntunen & Wettersten, 2006) as well as among individuals with serious mental illness (Russinova et al., 2018). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale and the goals, pathways, and agency subscales were 0.83, 0.49, 0.74, and 0.62, respectively.

2.2.3 Career adaptability

The Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) was used to capture one’s level of career adaptability. This 24-item measure consists of four subscales (six-items per scale) that identity four different dimensions of career adaptability –concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. Each item represents a type of career development skill and respondents rate the degree to which they have developed each skill using a 5-point Likert type scale. Sample items include “Planning how to achieve my goals” and “Looking for opportunities to grow as a person.” Responses range from 5 (“Strongest”) to 1 (“Not strong”). Reliability and validity for this measure have been extensively examined and previously reported (Savickas and Porfeli, 2012). In this study, Cronbach alphas for the total scale, and the concern, control, curiosity, and confidence subscales were 0.95, 0.84, 0.79, 0.78, and 0.82, respectively.

3 Analysis and results

Correlational analysis examined the relationships between the primary predictor variables, career adaptability and work hope, and the outcome variable, JSIS (see Table 1). Work hope, overall, was not significantly related to JSIS. However, the work hope goals and agency subscales were significantly and positively related to JSIS. Total career adaptability, as well as the confidence and concern subscales were significantly and negatively related to JSIS such that greater career adaptability, greater career confidence, and greater career concerns was related to lower intensity of job-searching.

Table 1
Correlations between Primary Predictor Variables and Job-Search Intensity

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. WH –

2. WH-G 0.87^ –

3. WH-A 0.87^ 0.71^ –

4. WH-P 0.82^ 0.56^ 0.51^ –

5. CA 0.65^ 0.47^ 0.49^ 0.69^ –

6. CA-CONC 0.59^ 0.42^ 0.39^ 0.69^ 0.93^ –

7. CA-CONT 0.59^ 0.42^ 0.45^ 0.63^ 0.94^ 0.83^ –

8. CA-CUR 0.65^ 0.50^ 0.52^ 0.64^ 0.94^ 0.83^ 0.87^ –

9. CA-CONF 0.61^ 0.41^ 0.50^ 0.62^ 0.93^ 0.80^ 0.84^ 0.84^ –

10. JSIS 0.12 0.29^** 0.26^* –0.20 –0.23^* –0.22^* –0.20 –0.14 –0.28^** –

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. WH	–
2. WH-G	0.87^**	–
3. WH-A	0.87^**	0.71^**	–
4. WH-P	0.82^**	0.56^**	0.51^**	–
5. CA	0.65^**	0.47^**	0.49^**	0.69^**	–
6. CA-CONC	0.59^**	0.42^**	0.39^**	0.69^**	0.93^**	–
7. CA-CONT	0.59^**	0.42^**	0.45^**	0.63^**	0.94^**	0.83^**	–
8. CA-CUR	0.65^**	0.50^**	0.52^**	0.64^**	0.94^**	0.83^**	0.87^**	–
9. CA-CONF	0.61^**	0.41^**	0.50^**	0.62^**	0.93^**	0.80^**	0.84^**	0.84^**	–
10. JSIS	0.12	0.29^**	0.26^*	–0.20	–0.23^*	–0.22^*	–0.20	–0.14	–0.28^**	–

Note: WH = total Work Hope; WH-G = Work Hope- Goals subscale; WH-A = Work Hope- Agency subscale; WH-P = Work. Hope- Pathways subscale; CA = total Career Adaptability; CA-CONC = Career Adaptability- Concern subscale; CA-CONT = Career Adaptability- Control subscale; CA-CUR = Career Adaptability- Curiosity subscale; CA-CONF = Career Adaptability- Confidence subscale; JSIS = total Job-Search Intensity Scale. ^**p < 0.01. ^*p < 0.05.

Next, we examined the correlations between the several background characteristics (age, race, gender, education level, employment status, and use of vocational rehabilitation services) and JSIS to identify potential covariates for subsequent regression analysis. Dichotomous variables were created to capture employment status (0 = unemployed; 1 = employed) as well as whether or not someone had engaged in state or federal vocational rehabilitation services (0 = no; 1 = yes). Findings suggest that age, race, and gender of an individual were not significantly related to JSIS (r = –0.13, 0.05, –0.19, respectively). However, the following variables had significant correlations with JSIS: education level (r = –0.31, p < 0.01), employment status (r = –0.35, p < 0.01), and use of vocational rehabilitation services (r = 0.35, p < 0.01). These findings suggest that having less education, being unemployed, and participating in vocational rehabilitation services are related to greater intensity of job-search behavior.

Regression analysis was then conducted to determine if work hope or career adaptability predicted JSIS. Level of education, employment status, and use of vocational rehabilitation services were added as covariates to the model given their significant relationship to JSIS. Exploratory analysis indicated that assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity were met and that there were no problems with multicollinearity (the largest variance inflation factor [VIF] among the variables was 1.894, and the lowest tolerance level was 0.528). Results of the regression analysis are presented in Table 2. Overall, the regression model was significant (F = 9.95, p = 0.000) and accounted for 35%of the variance in JSIS (f² = 0.64). Education level, employment status, and career adaptability were all significant negative predictors of JSI, while work hope and use of vocational services were significant positive predictors of JSI. A post-hoc power analysis of effect size, number of predictors, alpha level (0.05), and sample size estimated our power to be 0.99.

Table 2

Linear Regression Analysis Predicting Job-Search Intensity

Predictor	B	SE B	β	t
Education Level	–0.22	0.08	–0.24	–2.64^*
Employment Status	–0.58	0.18	–0.30	–3.25^**
Vocational Services	0.44	0.19	0.22	2.39^*
Work Hope	0.60	0.19	0.38	3.16^**
Career Adaptability	–0.60	0.20	–0.37	–3.06^**

^**p < 0.01. ^*p < 0.05.

Given the hypothesis that career adaptability would positively predict job-search intensity was not supported by our results, additional exploratory analysis was conducted to better understand the relationship between career adaptability and employment functioning. To this end, an independent sample t-test was conducted to compare total level of career adaptability across individuals who were employed (n = 53) versus individuals who were unemployed (n = 32). Individuals who were employed had significantly greater career adaptability scores (M = 3.96; SD = 0.58) compared to individuals who were unemployed (M = 3.64; SD = 0.54); t(83) = –2.53, p = 0.013. Additionally, among those who were unemployed, duration of unemployment was found to have a strong negative relationship to career adaptability (r = –0.72, p < 0.001) such that longer unemployment was associated with less career adaptability.

4 Discussion

The hypothesis that work hope will positively relate to job-searching intensity among individuals living with serious mental illness, is supported by this study. Even after controlling for education level, employment status, and participation in vocational rehabilitation services, work hope remained a significant predictor of job-search intensity. This is the first study to examine the relationships between work hope and job-search intensity among individuals with serious mental illness, providing empirical support for the clinical relevance of hope in vocational rehabilitation practice. This study corroborates other related research that has found positive affectivity and dispositional hope to be related to proactive career development behaviors (Hirschi, 2014) and job-search intensity (Cote et al., 2006). This study also confirms the recommendations of individuals with lived experience in navigating a job-search while having a disability as they report needing to maintain hope during the process of finding work (Jans et al., 2012). Given that work hope appears mutable among individuals living with serious mental illness (Russinova et al., 2018), interventions designed to enhance work hope are likely a worthwhile endeavor for increasing job-search intensity, thereby increasing job attainment.

While career adaptability was a significant predictor of job-search intensity in our regression model, the relationship between career adaptability and job-search intensity was negative. These findings suggest that as career adaptability increases among individuals with serious mental illness, job-search intensity decreases. These findings oppose previous research that found career adaptability to be positively related to job-search intensity (Koen et al., 2010), as well as other proactive career development behaviors (Taber & Blankemeyer, 2015). Our exploratory analysis found that individuals who were employed had significantly greater levels of career adaptability than those who were unemployed, which demonstrated an expected positive relationship between career adaptability and vocational functioning. Given this finding, the negative relationship between career adaptability and job-search intensity may be due to the fact that a majority of our sample were employed and thus, may have less reason to engage in an intensive job-search. Moreover, it is possible that individuals with higher career adaptability are more satisfied with their jobs which may reduce job-search intensity further.

Notably, this study uncovered a very strong and negative relationship between duration of unemployment and career adaptability (r = –72), suggesting that as unemployment length increases, career adaptability decreases. Previous research has also found significant negative correlations between career adaptability and length of unemployment (Koen et al., 2012), which provides further evidence that career adaptability is negatively associated with longer-term unemployment. It is possible that individuals are experiencing long-term unemployment, in part, due to challenges with career adaptability. Alternatively, it may be that career adaptability is reduced over time by extended periods of unemployment. Researchers have noted that the vocational field lacks an understanding of how career adaptability develops over time, and that more research is needed to explain how situational circumstances (e.g., duration of unemployment) impact the development of career adaptability (Johnston et al., 2016). We echo this call as our findings provide compelling evidence that individuals experiencing long-term unemployment are a particular sub-population with unique experiences relevant to the study of career adaptability and job-search behavior.

4.1 Limitations

It is important to recognize that results from this study cannot be interpreted as causal due to the cross-sectional nature of the research. Future research is needed to confirm directionality and causality. Additionally, it is possible that some underlying variable not accounted for in this study, such as self-efficacy, is influencing the nature of presented findings. Given the limited research presently available on career development and vocational behavior of individuals with serious mental illness, this study offers introductory findings. Additionally, while reliability coefficients for the overall work hope scale were good, the goals and agency subscales of the work hope scale appeared to have low reliability. Currently, no measure of work hope have been designed and validated for individuals living with serious mental illness. More research is needed to better understand appropriate methods for measuring work-related hope among individuals with serious mental illness. Our sampling procedures may have restricted participation in our study as the agencies we targeted may have inappropriately acted as a gatekeeper to access the study, and those choosing to participate may have different levels of work hope and career adaptability than those choosing not to participate. Lastly, to enhance generalizability, the researchers intentionally included participants in this study who were engaged in a job-search, regardless of their employment status (e.g., unemployed, part-time employed, full-time employed). However, unique experiences accompanying employment status may not have been fully accounted for in this study. Future studies are needed to examine whether or not findings in this study hold among a sample solely comprised of individuals who are unemployed, or employed.

5 Conclusion

Despite the limitations of this research, this study makes important contributions to the vocational rehabilitation literature. Notably, the presence of work hope appears to be an important contributor to engaging in more intensive job-searching behavior. Vocational rehabilitation counselors may find that interventions aimed at increasing work hope would have the added effect of increasing job-searching behavior, which is known to lead to eventual job attainment. Additionally, given that higher levels of career adaptability is associated with positive employment outcomes (being employed versus unemployed), it is likely relevant for vocational rehabilitation counselors to infuse interventions aimed at enhancing career adaptability among individuals living with serious mental illness into their practice.

Conflict of interest

None to report.

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