An analysis of training and vocational rehabilitation services for individuals with intellectual disability

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

WIOA encourages providers such as Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) to seek higher wages and more than part-time hours for those with disabilities. Previous studies have evaluated the relationship between (VR) and job outcomes for individuals with intellectual disability (ID).

OBJECTIVE:

The present study evaluated the effect of VR services on wage and hours worked.

METHOD:

We obtained a national dataset from the Rehabilitation Services Administration to analyze individuals with ID on variables specially related to training and VR services.

RESULTS:

Results indicated more training resulted in more hours worked, while using more VR services resulted in less hours worked and pay. Differences in hours worked and wage were found within training and VR services.

CONCLUSION:

Individuals with ID should consider utilizing job counseling with VR agencies and focus on occupational training, as these services may contribute to increased wages and hours worked.

Keywords

Vocational rehabilitation wage hours worked intellectual disability competitive and integrated employment

1 Introduction

Improving historically poor employment outcomes for individuals with disabilities, specifically those with significant disabilities, has been a focal point of research for decades (Carter et al., 2012; Halpern, 1985; Will, 1984;). The Workforce Innovations and Opportunities Act (WIOA, 2014) encourages service providers and state agencies, including state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agencies, to facilitate the transition from high school to work settings that pay minimum wages, offer more than part-time hours, and promote blended opportunities with typically developing peers. Indeed, utilizing VR services has been shown to lead to promising results. For example, several studies have linked vocational rehabilitation services to successful outcomes for individuals with a disability such as autism (see Alverson & Yamamoto, 2017 and Kaya et al., 2018 for examples). Kaya et al. (2018) found several VR services, such as job placement, on-the-job support, and on-the-job training were significantly associated with competitive employment for those with autism. Further, demographic characteristics (e.g., gender and education level) are significant predictors of competitive employment outcomes. A small number of studies have addressed VR services and employment outcomes for those with intellectual disability (ID) (Austin & Lee, 2014; Moore et al., 2004; and Wehman et al., 2014), and even fewer studies have done so since the WIOA legislation (Austin & Lee, 2019; Kaya, 2018). Kaya (2018) examined demographics and VR service delivery for individuals with ID and found job placement, on-the-job support, on-the-job training, and technical assistance all significantly impacted competitive employment outcomes. While these study address obtaining employment for those with disabilities such as autism or ID, they do not address number of hours worked or wages. According to the WIOA, competitive wages and increased hours are critical goals. Studies have addressed hours worked and wages of those with disabilities such as autism or ID, but many of these studies compared wages of different populations (Cimera et al., 2013; Kang et al., 2019; Miller et al., 2019; Whittenburg et al., 2019), types of employment (Cimera, 2017), benefits effect on hours worked (Nord & Nye-Lengerman, 2015), and wage effects on quality of life (Kuo et al., 2020). Prior research studies have not addressed VR services and employment in terms of wage and hours worked.

Previous studies have included different types of training as a VR service. In general, training seems different from many VR services, which focus more on offering specific assistance in obtaining and maintaining employment. Training is more developmental with a goal of enhancing a person’s capabilities that may extend beyond their current job. Training typically takes place in settings such as schools or places of employment and is conducted by instructors not associated with VR. Training is also not unique to VR clients. Some training that clients encounter would not differ for someone without a disability.

As policy expands and demand for competitive and integrated employment grows, we need to better understand how services may affect WIOA goals of competitive wages and more than part-time work. Therefore, we sought to explore three questions:

Does more training or more use of VR services result in higher hourly wages and more hours worked?

Does both more training and use of VR services result in higher hourly wages and more hours worked?

Do certain training programs or VR services result in higher hourly wages and more hours worked?

2 Methods

The RSA-911 database from 2014 to 2016 was obtained from the United States Department of Education Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. The dataset consisted of the Vocational Rehabilitation program Case Service Report. Since our team was specifically interested in the immediate impact of WIOA and the transition to employment, we requested data from 2014 to 2016. The case service report consisted of rehabilitation data from all 50 states and U.S. territories. The file includes a total of 556,372 clients with multiple impairments grouped into 3 categories: sensory/communicative impairments, physical impairments, and mental impairments.

2.1 Participants

Clients with a primary or secondary mental impairment caused by intellectual disability were chosen for the study. The sample included 51,671 clients (30,928 males and 20,743 females). Mean age was 29.97 years (SD = 11.49). Racial demographics are as follows: White = 34,407, Black = 16,142, American Indian = 800, Asian = 4,916, Pacific Islander = 260, and Hispanic = 4,916. Two hundred and twenty-six clients reported veteran status.

2.2 Variables

2.2.1 Hourly wage

Hourly wage was calculated by dividing the amount of weekly pay a client obtained at the time of application closure by number of hours worked per week (at application closure).

2.2.2 Hours a week worked at time of closure

Hours a week worked at time of closure was reported using ratio scaling and was calculated for all clients who obtained employment when the file was closed. All clients reported a time for hours worked at closure.

2.2.3 Significance of disability

Significance of disability was coded as 0, no significant disability, 1, significantly disability, and 2, most significant disability. A significant disability was defined as a mental or physical impairment that seriously limits functioning capacity, or the need for multiple services required by VR. Within the sample, 1.7% of participants were found to have no significant disability, while 27% were found to have a significant disability, and 70.6% were found to be classified as having the most significant disability.

2.2.4 Level of education attained at closure

This variable indicates level of education at file closure and was coded as: 0, no formal schooling. 1, Elementary education, grades 1–8. 2, Secondary education, no high school diploma. 3, Special Education Certificate of completion/diploma. 4, High school graduate or GED. 5, Post-secondary education, no degree. 6, post-secondary education academic degree, associate degree. 7, Bachelor’s degree. 8, Master’s degree. 9, any degree above a Master’s degree. 10, Vocational/Technical Certification or License. 11, Occupational credential beyond undergraduate work. 12, Occupational credential beyond graduate degree work. For our scaling, we combined category 10 with 6, category 11 with 8, and moved category 12 to become category 10 in sequence.

2.2.5 Training

Training was categorized as 0, no training and 1, training in the certain category. There were multiple training categories, only those frequently utilized by this clientele were addressed. Occupational or vocational training consisted of training provided by a tech school or business to prepare the student for employment not leading to an academic degree. On-the-job training consisted of training in specific job skills by the employer. This training was generally paid, and the person would enter/remain in a similar job upon completion. Last, job readiness training consisted of general training to prepare a person for the world or work such as appropriate behavior, dress, grooming, being tardy, etc.

2.2.6 Vocational rehabilitation services

Services were categorized as 0, not having that service and 1, service in that category. Multiple services were listed. Those that focused most on helping a client obtain/maintain a job, and were used most, were considered with the exception of transportation. Vocational rehabilitation counseling included guidance and support to help an individual make an informed choice about jobs/careers. This is distinct from case management. Job placement assistance consists of a referral to a job that results in an interview. Job search assistance consisted of activities and support to assist a client in searching for an appropriate job (e.g., resume preparation, interview skills, appropriate jobs determination, employer contacting). On-the-job support-supported employment consisted of providing support to help stabilize placement and improve job retention. This service is used for those with severe disabilities and does not exceed 18 months. It includes services such as job coaching. On-the-job support short term consisted of support to help stabilize placement and improve job retention for a short duration.

3 Results

Descriptive statistics and correlations are listed in Table 1. Regression analyses were conducted to further analyze the relationships between service use and hours works/hourly wage. We assessed the relationship between total VR service and hourly wage and total VR services and training services while controlling for significance of disability and education. Results indicated that when controlling for these variables, there was a negative relationship between hourly wage and VR services (b = –0.02, t (48,432) = –4.74, p < 0.00) and no relationship between hourly wage and training services (b = –0.00, t (48,432) = –0.93, ns), further supporting the correlation results. Results also indicated that when controlling for education and disability significance a negative relationship continued to exist between hours of work and VR services (b = –0.09, t (48,541) = –19.13, p < 0.00), while a positive relationship existed between training services and hours of work (b = 0.07, t (48,541) = 17.34, p < 0.00). This supports the correlations indicating that those who obtain more VR services work less hours while those who used training services worked more hours.

Table 1
Descriptive statistics and correlation among variables

Variables Mean SD 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Hours worked a week 23.27 10.78 0.15 0.08 –0.18 0.09 –0.11 –0.06

2. Hourly wage 8.66 2.11 0.14 –0.09 0.00 –0.04 –0.03

3. Education at closure 3.54 (4.00)^a 0.98 –0.03 0.01 –0.02 –0.01

4. Sig, of disability 1.69 (2.00)^a 0.50 –0.07 0.18 0.13

5. Total training services 0.37 0.58 0.01 0.45

6. Total VR services 2.53 1.33 0.90

7. Total services 2.16 1.19

Variables	Mean	SD	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Hours worked a week	23.27	10.78	0.15	0.08	–0.18	0.09	–0.11	–0.06
2. Hourly wage	8.66	2.11		0.14	–0.09	0.00	–0.04	–0.03
3. Education at closure	3.54 (4.00)^a	0.98			–0.03	0.01	–0.02	–0.01
4. Sig, of disability	1.69 (2.00)^a	0.50				–0.07	0.18	0.13
5. Total training services	0.37	0.58					0.01	0.45
6. Total VR services	2.53	1.33						0.90
7. Total services	2.16	1.19

Note. Correlations above 0.02 are significant >0.000. ^aIndicates (median).

Analyses were repeated evaluating total services rendered. Results indicated that when controlling for education and disability significance, the total number of services was negatively related to the total number of hours worked (b = –0.04, t (48,541) = –9.13, p < 0.00) and negatively related to hourly wage (b = –0.02, t (48,432) = –4.68, p < 0.00), indicating that those who used more services were paid less and worked less hours.

Analyses were also done to determine if certain training services or VR services resulted in higher pay or more hours worked. Since clients were able to obtain more than one training service or more than one VR service, cases were only selected for those who participated in one training service or one VR service. For example, the clients selected for on-the job training only participated in on-the-job training and no other training service such as job readiness. This allowed us to maintain the assumption of independence.

Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to assess if certain training services resulted in higher pay and more hours worked. Education and disability significance were used as co-variates. There was a significant difference in training activities on the combined group of dependent variables after controlling for education and significance of disability, F(6, 48459) = 81.27, p < 0.000, Wilks’ L = 0.99, partial h² = 01. Table 2 displays the means for training services separated by dependent variable. Tests of between subject effects separating the DVs were also analyzed (see Table 3). Means indicated that those with occupational training had higher hourly wages and worked more hours than those with other forms of training.

Table 2

Descriptive for training tasks by DV

	Hourly wage
Training activities	M (SD)	N
No training	8.66 (2.18)	34,926
On the job	8.71 (1.87)	903
Occupational training	9.15 (2.56)	2890
Job readiness	8.50 (1.76)	9741
	Hours worked per week
No training	22.81 (10.69)	34,926
On the job	23.44 (11.14)	903
Occupational training	27.34 (11.16)	2890
Job readiness	24.37 (10.51)	9741

Table 3

Analysis of MANCOVA for hourly wage/hours worked by type of training

Source	Wilk’s Λ	df	MS	F	p	η ²
Intercept	0.59	2		16896.31	< 0.000	0.41
Hourly wage		1	115400.61	26109.80	< 0.000	0.35
Hours per week		1	1270762.52	11489.39	< 0.000	0.19
Education at closure	0.98	2		435.95	< 0.000	0.02
Hourly wage		1	3294.57	745.41	< 0.000	0.02
Hours per week		1	23498.57	212.46	< 0.000	0.00
Significance of disability	9.68	2		796.88	< 0.000	0.03
Hourly wage		1	1474.90	333.70	< 0.000	0.01
Hours per week		1	155576.08	1406.62	< 0.000	0.03
Training	0.99	6		81.27	< 0.000	0.01
Hourly wage		3	140.66	31.83	< 0.000	0.00
Hours per week		3	14664.69	132.59	< 0.000	0.01
Error
Hourly wage		48454	4.42
Hours per week		48454	110.60
Total		48460

Note. Adjusted R² = 0.03 and 0.04.

MANCOVA was also done to assess if certain VR services resulted in higher pay or more hours worked. Again, education and disability significance were used as co-variates. There was a significant difference in VR services on the combined group of dependent variables after controlling for education and significance of disability, F(10, 49326) = 116.72, p < 0.000, Wilks’ L = 0.98, partial h² = 01. Table 4 displays the means for VR services separated by dependent variable. Tests of between subject effects separating the DV were also analyzed (see Table 5). Means indicate that those with VR counseling had higher hourly wage and worked more hours followed by job placement for hours worked and job search for hourly wage.

Table 4

Descriptive for VR services by DV

	Hourly wage
VR services	M (SD)	N
No services	8.62 (2.05)	40003
VR counseling	9.27 (3.16)	3285
Job placement	8.68 (1.99)	1731
Job search	8.93 (2.12)	936
Job support short term	8.46 (1.53)	1015
Job support supported employment	8.31 (1.65)	2357
	Hours worked per week
No services	23.18 (10.65)	40003
VR counseling	26.86 (10.79)	3285
Job placement	26.00 (10.54)	1731
Job search	24.53 (11.47)	936
Job support short term	24.96 (10.70)	1015
Job support supported employment	18.69 (9.85)	2357

Table 5

Analysis of MANCOVA for hourly wage/hours worked by type of VR service

Source	Wilk’s Λ	df	MS	F	p	η ²
Intercept	0.58	2		17965.76	< 0.000	0.42
Hourly wage		1	120169.05	27566.96	< 0.000	0.36
Hours per week		1	1333958.67	12238.33	< 0.000	0.20
Education at closure	0.98	2		432.55	< 0.000	0.02
Hourly wage		1	3317.32	761.00	< 0.000	0.02
Hours per week		1	19642.39	180.21	< 0.000	0.00
Significance of disability	0.96	2		943.25	< 0.000	0.03
Hourly wage		1	1718.05	394.12	< 0.000	0.01
Hours per week		1	180779.59	1658.55	< 0.000	0.03
VR services	0.98	10		116.72	< 0.000	0.01
Hourly wage		5	276.50	63.43	< 0.000	0.00
Hours per week		5	20561.09	188.64	< 0.000	0.02
Error
Hourly wage		48454	4.36
Hours per week		48454	109.00
Total		48460

Note. Adjusted R² = 0.03 and 0.06.

4 Discussion

Results indicated that those with more education had higher wages and worked more hours, consistent with findings from previous studies (e.g., Kaya, 2018). However, results also indicate that those with ID who utilized more VR services related to obtaining or maintaining a job received lower wages and worked less hours. These relationships were found even when controlling for the significance of the disability and education. Unlike previous studies such as Kaya (2018), which discusses transition-aged students, our study does not limit age, possibly pushing the field to think beyond any form of employment as being a success story. Our findings encourage one to elevate expectations toward high-quality employment, which could mean pushing closer to integrated and competitive employment with more hours worked and higher wages. As previously mentioned, studies have not addressed these factors. Although obtaining employment is a first step, WIOA encourages minimum wage employment and more than part-time hours. Therefore, addressing the nature of that employment is important.

Our findings may also suggest that those who use more services had more significant disabilities and chose to work fewer hours or chose jobs that pay less, possibly in segregated employment. This may seem reasonable given that those who used services such as job support, either short term or supported employment, tended to have lower wages, and work less hours. It is possible that clients worked fewer hours to obtain or maintain certain SSDI/SSI benefits. Nord and Nye-Lengerman (2015) found that people who used more public benefits tended to work less hours. If both of these instances are true, it seems to coincide with the struggles affecting people with disabilities, which are (a) differing opinions on pushing for more self-supportive competitive employment versus more segregated employment options, and (b) struggles with SSDI/SSI benefits and self-supporting employment. These data may indicate that the struggles are real and that more effort is required to reconcile these issues.

Study results may also be influenced by the type of employers that network with VR. Services such as job placement or job search may result in clients obtaining jobs with organizations that are known to VR; these organizations may pay less or offer less hours. VR may need to find and connect with organizations that will support higher paying jobs and more working hours for those with ID.

Results indicated that using more training services resulted in more hours worked, but not necessarily higher wages. An increase in training services may indicate that clients have obtained additional skills that make them more marketable for specifics jobs. This may be the case as the training service that resulted in the highest wage and highest number of hours worked was that of occupational training. Previous research has found that employment improves for those with disabilities who are enrolled in vocational or employment related programs in high school (Carter et al., 2012; Shandra & Hogan, 2008). Our research further supports occupational training as a possible predictor for future employment.

Last, the VR service of job counseling resulted in the highest average salary, surpassing the average wage and even surpassing the average wage for all training services. It is possible that identifying jobs of interest to the individual, learning what those jobs entail, and discussing the potential responsibilities of that job, could lead to placement in a desired place of employment for the individual with ID. This is consistent with previous research (e.g., Blustein, 2008; Vondracek & Porfeli, 2003).

4.1 Limitations

One limitation of the study is variations in quality of training, VR, and other service providers, were not evaluated. It is possible that there are varying levels of quality among these groups suggesting that some service providers find great opportunities for clients while others do not or that the training or VR service itself is of lesser/greater quality. Future research recommendations include addressing agency differences that may vary between and within states. Similarly, states and territories varied widely in hourly wage. Additional analyses were conducted to examine the mean difference between agencies. These data reflected a variance of $4.45 per hour between geographies, with a maximum mean of $11.19 in the District of Columbia (SD = 2.87, n = 205) and a minimum mean of $4.56 from American Samoa (SD = 2.03, n 2). Agencies were not equally represented across clients (range: 1, 5489). Further investigation into differences between agencies/states is recommended.

Another limitation is that benefits counseling and SSI and SSDI were not evaluated. As Nord & Nye-Lengerman (2015) mentioned, the use of benefits may affect hours worked. We did not evaluate services that may indirectly affect hours worked or wages, as we focused primarily on services we felt more directly affected obtaining or maintaining a specific job. It would be important in follow up studies to address benefit counseling, and clients use of SSI and SSDI.

Lastly, the definition of significance of disability is ambiguous. We interpreted this to indicate severity of disability, but the words “most significant disability” indicates a comparison to other disabilities which was not part of the coding instructions. Clarity on the part of VR for future data collections would greatly help future interpretation and application of analyses.

5 Conclusion

The study provides more information on how certain VR services and training affect employment. Although it may be anticipated that utilizing more services would be beneficial to those with ID, results indicate that utilizing more VR services may not necessarily result in higher wages or more hours worked. Furthermore, results indicated that clients may benefit from utilizing job counseling within vocational rehabilitation agencies and a focus on training improves hours worked for those with ID.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the contributions of several graduate students at St. Cloud State University, the Office of Research and Sponsored programs, and St. Cloud State University for providing the means to collaborate across universities. Support for this work came through an internal faculty research award at St. Cloud State University.

Conflict of interest

None to report.

References

Alverson,

C. Y.

, & Yamamoto,

S. H.

(2017). Employment outcome of vocational rehabilitation clients with autism spectrum disorders. Career Development Transition for Exceptional Individuals40(3), 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143416629366

Austin,

B. S.

, & Lee,

(2014). A structural equation model of vocational rehabilitation services: Predictors of employment outcomes for clients with intellectual and co-occurring psychiatric disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation80(3), 11–20.

Austin,

B. S.

, Lee,

C. L.

, Flemming,

, & Pi,

(2019). Vocational Rehabilitation Outcomes for individuals with intellectual disabilities and co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Journal of Rehabilitation85(4), 14–23.

Blustein,

D. L.

(2008). The role of work in psychological health and well-being: a conceptual, historical, and public policy perspective. American Psychologist63(4), 228.

Carter,

E. W.

, Austin,

, & Trainor,

A. A.

(2012). Factors associated with the early work experiences of adolescents with severe disabilities. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities49(4), 142–150. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-49.4.233

Cimera,

R. E.

(2017). The percentage of supported employees with significant disabilities who would earn more in sheltered workshops. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities42(2), 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796917697448

Cimera,

R. E.

, Burgess,

, & Wiley,

(2013). Does providing transition services early enable students with ASD to achieve better vocational outcomes as adults?Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities38(2), 88–93.

Halpern,

A. S.

(1985). Transition: A look at the foundations. Exceptional Children51, 479–486.

Kang,

, Nord,

D. K.

, & Nye-Lengerman,

K. M.

(2019). Weekly wage exploration of vocational rehabilitation service recipients: A quantile regression approach. Journal of Rehabilitation85(1), 4–14.

10.

Kaya,

(2018). Demographic variables, vocational rehabilitation services, and employment outcomes for transition-age youth with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities15(3), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12249

11.

Kaya,

, Hanley-Maxwell,

, Chan,

, & Tansey,

(2018). Differential vocational rehabilitation service patterns and outcomes for transition-age youth with autism. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities31, 862–872. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12443

12.

Kaya,

, Chan,

, Rumrill,

, Hartman,

, Wehman,

, Iwanaga,

, Pai,

, & Avellone,

(2016). Vocational rehabilitation services and competitive employment for transition-age youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation45(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-160812

13.

Kuo,

J. H.

, Levine,

, & Kusciulek,

(2020). The relationship of quality of life and subminimum wage: Implications of WIOA Section. Journal of Rehabilitation86(2), 31–38.

14.

Miller,

S. C.

, Tucker,

M. S.

, & Sax,

C. L.

(2019). Examining associations between postsecondary education, earnings, and provision of college and university training related to individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities served by vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Rehabilitation19(85), 22–34.

15.

Moore,

C. L.

, Harley,

D. A.

, & Gamble,

(2004). Ex-post-facto analysis of competitive employment outcomes for individuals with mental retardation: National perspective. Mental Retardation42(4), 253–262.

16.

National Council on Disability. (2012). National Council on Disability Report on Subminimum Wage and Supported Employment, Retrieved January 18, 2020 from http://ncd.org/publications/2012/August23202

17.

Nord,

, & Nye-Lengerman,

(2015). The negative effects of public benefits on individual employment: A multilevel analysis of work hours. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities53(4), 308–318. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-53.4.308

18.

Shandra,

C. L.

, & Hogan,

D. P.

(2008). School-to-work program participation and the post-high school employment of young adults with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation29(2), 117–130.

19.

Vondracek,

F. W.

, & Porfeli,

E. J.

(2003). The world of work and careers. In G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 109 –128). Blackwell.

20.

Wehman,

, Chan,

, Ditchman,

, & Kang,

H. J.

(2014). Effect of supported employment on vocational rehabilitation outcomes of transition-age youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A case control study. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities52(4), 296–310. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-52.4.296

21.

Wehman,

, Sima,

A. P.

, Ketchum,

, West,

M. D.

, Chan,

, & Luecking,

(2015). Predictors of successful transition from school to employment for youth with disabilities. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation25(2), 323–334. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10926-014-9541-6

22.

Wehman,

, Taylor,

, Brooke,

, Avellone,

, Whittenburg,

, Ham,

, Brooke,

A. M.

, & Carr,

(2018). Toward competitive employment for persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities: What progress have we made and where do we need to go?Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities43(3), 131–144https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796918777730

23.

Will,

(1984). OSERS programming for the transition of youth with disabilities: Bridges from school to working life. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.

24.

Whittenburg,

H. N.

, Cimera,

R. E.

, & Thoma,

C. A.

(2019). Comparing employment outcomes of young adults with autism: Does postsecondary education experience matter?Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability32(2), 159–172.

25.

Workforce Innovation and Opportunities Act of 2014, PL 113-128, STAT. 1634.