Healthy eating behaviors and food consumption frequencies of retail workers

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Retail workers comprise millions of people, but little is known about their eating behaviors and food consumption patterns.

OBJECTIVE:

To examine the healthy eating behaviors and food consumption frequencies of retail workers in shopping malls.

METHODS:

The sample of this descriptive study consisted of 385 retail employees working in ready-made garment stores of shopping malls in Istanbul (42% of those eligible). A descriptive information form, the nutrition subscale of the Health-promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP), and the Food Consumption Frequency Survey were used as data collection tools.

RESULTS:

It was determined that more than half of the participants skipped breakfast and other meals and consumed fast food and packaged and acidic drinks five to six days a week. The mean score of the participants on the HPLP-nutrition subscale was determined to be 11.79±3.29.

CONCLUSIONS:

The retail workers in shopping malls were found to have insufficient healthy eating behaviors, a low frequency of healthy food consumption, and a high level of fast-food consumption. Maintaining healthy eating habits is crucial for the health of employees. It is necessary for workplaces to take steps to help their employees become aware of and practice healthy eating. Workplaces should also be encouraged to provide healthy food options for their employees.

Keywords

Retail worker healthy eating shopping mall

1 Introduction

In recent years, there has been a great increase in the number of shopping malls around the world [1]. Shopping malls serve as areas for commercial activities, cultural events, and socialization. In addition, the number of employees in these centers, which provide employment for many individuals, is rising daily [2, 3].

The retail sector is an area that requires working at a fast pace to respond to the needs of the consumer instantly. According to the Labour Law in Turkey, the weekly working time should not exceed 45 hours (normal working time). However, some employees in the retail sector may work beyond these limits due to long shifts and irregular working hours. For this reason, employees can only take a few short breaks, which reduces the time available for meals [4 –6]. Employers are also obliged to take the necessary measures for the health and safety of employees. However, in the retail sector, working environments can often be inadequate, for example, lacking airy staff room for taking breaks, with kitchens or canteens. This causes individuals to have difficulty maintaining healthy life activities, especially modifying their eating habits. In addition, shift work changes the frequency of food consumption and affects the diversity in food intake [7 –9]. In addition, the food section of shopping malls offers more fast-food options, increasing the demand of employees for ready-made foods, reducing the possibility of finding healthy food, and resulting in the maintenance of irregular eating habits [10]. While individuals who regularly have breakfast and exercise are less likely to experience metabolic syndrome, the risk of this condition increases as the working years of employees with sedentary and irregular eating habits increase. These individuals have a higher risk of health problems compared to the active population [11]. Therefore, retail workers should be more aware of conscious eating to maintain healthy nutritional habits.

Today, since many employees spend most of their days being inactive, irregular, and unhealthy eating habits have become common. This results in negative eating behaviors, such as the consumption of ready-made snacks [12, 13]. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no study in the literature evaluating the healthy eating behaviors and food consumption frequencies of retail workers. The ready-made garment sector employs millions globally, yet little is known about the eating behaviors and food consumption patterns of its retail workers. This study seeks to explore these aspects, addressing a research gap and paving the way for interventions to enhance nutrition and well-being in this vital workforce. This study was conducted to examine the healthy eating behaviors and food consumption frequencies of retail workers in shopping malls.

2 Method

2.1 Design and participants

This research had a descriptive design. The study population consisted of 4,786 retail workers working in the stores of a clothing company in Istanbul. Data were collected between December 2022 and February 2023 retail workers who met the study inclusion criteria.

The inclusion criteria for the research are:

Being full time workers

Have at least 1 year of retail worker experience.

The data collection forms prepared using Google Forms were sent to the mobile phones of 924 retail employees who met the inclusion criteria using a link. Of the 924 employees who met the inclusion criteria, 385 people who voluntarily agreed to participate in the research and answered the forms completely constituted the sample of the study.

2.2 Data collection and the tools employed

The data collection tool used in this study consisted of three sections: 1) a descriptive information form containing the sociodemographic characteristics of the shopping mall employees, 2) the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile, and 3) the Food Consumption Frequency Survey. Following receipt of the requisite ethical committee approval, the forms were completed online by retail workers consenting to take part in the study. It took participants 15–20 minutes to complete the forms.

2.2.1 Descriptive information form

This form was prepared by the researchers and consists of introductory questions to obtain information on age, gender, education level, income level, marital status, height, weight, presence of chronic health problems, daily water consumption, presence/absence of skipping meals, and reasons for skipping meals. The body mass index was calculated using the formula, body weight (kg)/height (m)², and the participants were grouped according to the classification of the World Health Organization. Regarding the working life, information was asked about sufficiency of number of workers, duration of employment in the current sector, number of weekly working hours.

2.2.2 Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP)-nutrition

HPLP, developed in 1987 by Walker, Sechrist, and Pender, consists of a total of 48 items under six subscales, one of which is related to nutrition [14]. The nutrition subscale includes six items, all based on positive statements and structured on a four-point Likert-type scale. The responses are scored as follows: 1 point for “never”, 2 points for “sometimes”, 3 points for “often”, and 4 points for “regularly”. The lowest score that can be obtained from the HPLP-nutrition subscale is 6, and the highest score is 24. HPLP was adapted into Turkish by Esin and the validity and reliability analyses of the Turkish version were also undertaken. The Cronbach alpha of the nutrition subscale is specified as 0.57 [15]. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha value was found to be 0.82.

2.2.3 Food Consumption Frequency Survey

This instrument helps determine how often individuals consume vegetables and fruits in the last month. Each item has nine response options based on the frequency of consumption: “every meal” (9 points), “every day” (8 points), “five to six times a week” (7 points), “three to four times a week” (6 points), “once to twice a week” (5 points), “once every 15 days” (4 points), “once a month” (3 points), “rarely” (2 points), and “never” (1 point) [16].

2.3 Data analysis

The data obtained from the research were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows, v. 25.0). Number, percentage, mean, and standard deviation values were used as descriptive statistical methods in the analysis of the data.

2.4 Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the non-interventional research ethics committee of the university (decision number: 10840098-604.01.01-E.65470). The participants were informed in detail that all their data would be kept by the researchers and would not be shared with anyone. All participants provided consent, and data confidentiality was ensured.

3 Results

Of the individuals participating in the study, 77.1% were women, mean age was 26.23±5.56 years, 41.8% of the participants had an undergraduate education level, 82.9% were single, and 63.6% had a moderate income (income equal to expenses) level. It was determined that 63.7% did not have breakfast, and 41% skipped meals because they did not have the habit of having regular meals. The mean body mass index was 23.3±4.21 kg/m². The mean daily water consumption was 1,079.09 ml. It was determined that 76.4% of the participants did not have a chronic disease (Table 1).

Table 1
Distribution of participants’ HPLP-nutrition scores according to their descriptive characteristics

Descriptive characteristics n %

Gender Female 297 77.1

Male 88 22.9

Education level High school 106 27.5

Associate degree 118 30.6

Undergraduate degree 161 41.8

Income level Income less than expenses 56 14.5

Equal to expenses 245 63.6

Income exceeds expenses 84 21.8

Marital status Single 319 82.9

Married 66 17.1

Chronic health problem Absent 294 76.4

Present 91 23.6

Reasons for skipping meals No regular meal habit 154 41.0

Time constraints 112 29.1

Trying to lose weight 70 18.2

Other 49 12.7

Most skipped meal Breakfast 245 63.7

Lunch 84 21.8

Evening meal 56 14.5

Body Mass Index classification Underweight 24 6.2

Normal weight 265 68.8

Overweight 62 16.1

Obese 34 8.8

Descriptive characteristic Min-Max Mean SD

Age 20.00–53.00 26.23 5.56

BMI (m/kg²) 15.62–35.92 23.33 4.21

Number of daily meals 2.00–6.00 3.67 .97

Daily water consumption (ml) 400.00–2,000.00 1,079.09 337.09

Duration of employment in the current sector (years) 1.00–4.00 2.25 .90

Number of weekly working hours 54.00–60.00 52.03 13.07

Sufficiency of number of workers n %

Sufficient 92 23.9

Partially sufficient 150 39

Insufficient 143 37.1

Descriptive characteristics		n	%
Gender	Female	297	77.1
	Male	88	22.9
Education level	High school	106	27.5
	Associate degree	118	30.6
	Undergraduate degree	161	41.8
Income level	Income less than expenses	56	14.5
	Equal to expenses	245	63.6
	Income exceeds expenses	84	21.8
Marital status	Single	319	82.9
	Married	66	17.1
Chronic health problem	Absent	294	76.4
	Present	91	23.6
Reasons for skipping meals	No regular meal habit	154	41.0
	Time constraints	112	29.1
	Trying to lose weight	70	18.2
	Other	49	12.7
Most skipped meal	Breakfast	245	63.7
	Lunch	84	21.8
	Evening meal	56	14.5
Body Mass Index classification	Underweight	24	6.2
	Normal weight	265	68.8
	Overweight	62	16.1
	Obese	34	8.8
Descriptive characteristic	Min-Max	Mean	SD
Age	20.00–53.00	26.23	5.56
BMI (m/kg²)	15.62–35.92	23.33	4.21
Number of daily meals	2.00–6.00	3.67	.97
Daily water consumption (ml)	400.00–2,000.00	1,079.09	337.09
Duration of employment in the current sector (years)	1.00–4.00	2.25	.90
Number of weekly working hours	54.00–60.00	52.03	13.07
Sufficiency of number of workers		n	%
Sufficient		92	23.9
Partially sufficient		150	39
Insufficient		143	37.1

The mean duration of working in the retail sector was 2.25±0.90 years. It was determined that the average weekly working hours was 52.03±13.07. 39% of the participants stated that the number of employees was partially sufficient (Table 1). The mean score of the participants on the HPLP-nutrition subscale was determined to be 11.79±3.29 (Table 2).

Table 2

Nutrition behaviors scale*

Items	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	SD
I have breakfast in the morning.	1.00	4.00	1.98	0.95
When buying food items, I choose those that do not contain preservatives or additives.	1.00	4.00	1.83	0.80
I eat three meals regularly every day.	1.00	4.00	1.33	.85
I eat foods containing pulp and fiber, such as raw vegetables, fruits and legumes.	1.00	4.00	2.40	.78
I read the labels on packaged foods to recognize their characteristics.	1.00	4.00	2.18	.76
I plan meals containing 4 food groups (protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins) every day.	1.00	4.00	2.07	.99
Total	8.00	21.00	11.79	3.29

*1 point = never, 2 points = sometimes, 3 points = often, 4 points = regularly

When the food consumption status of retail workers is examined, it is seen that they consume milk and dairy products 3-4 times a week (milk: 5.68±1.37), and they consume meat, eggs and legumes 1-2 times a week (red meat: 5.29±1,56), consume vegetables and fresh fruits 3-4 times a week (vegetables: 6.13±1.58), consume green leafy vegetables and dried fruits 1-2 times a week (leafy greens: 4.27±1.82)., they consumed bread at every meal (8.90±0.49), consumed fast food 5-6 days a week (western style fast food: 6.58±0.88), consumed packaged and acidic drinks 5-6 days a week. It was determined that they consumed sweets 3-4 times a week (Syrup-based desert: 5.76±0.81) (Tables 3, 4).

Table 3

Food consumption means of the participants*

Category	Type of food	Min	Max	Mean	SD
Milk and dairy products	Milk	2.00	9.00	5.68	1.37
	Yoghurt	2.00	8.00	5.65	1.45
	Cheese	2.00	8.00	5.67	1.63
	Ayran (yoghurt-based drink)	2.00	8.00	6.16	1.33
Meat-egg-legume	Red meat	2.00	9.00	5.29	1.56
	Chicken	2.00	9.00	5.20	1.58
	Turkey-fish	5.00	9.00	5.18	1.13
	Eggs	2.00	9.00	5.24	1.36
	Legumes	2.00	9.00	5.38	2.25
Vegetable-fruit	Leafy greens	2.00	9.00	4.27	1.82
	Vegetables	2.00	9.00	6.13	1.58
	Fresh fruit	1.00	8.00	6.13	1.61
	Dried fruit	1.00	8.00	4.13	1.40
Bread-cereal	Bread	8.00	9.00	8.90	0.49
	Pasta	1.00	2.00	1.42	0.49
	Rice	2.00	5.00	3.22	0.71
	Bulgur	1.00	8.00	4.42	1.61
Fast food	Western style	5.00	8.00	6.58	0.88
	Traditional	2.00	9.00	6.61	0.41
	Patisserie	2.00	5.00	6.50	0.87
Beverages	Packaged fruit juice	1.00	4.00	6.51	0.95
	Coke	2.00	9.00	6.63	0.92
	Tea	6.00	8.00	8.02	0.53
	Coffee	1.00	8.00	5.80	1.02
	Herbal tea	1.00	2.00	4.74	2.03
Desert	Chocolate	5.00	9.00	5.69	1.06
	Syrup-based desert	1.00	8.00	5.76	0.81
	Milk puddings	2.00	9.00	5.55	1.48

*9 points = every meal, 8 points = every day, 7 points = five to six times a week, 6 points = three to four times a week, 5 points = once to twice a week, 4 points = once every 15 days, 3 points = once a month, 2 points = rarely, 1 point = never.

Table 4

Food consumption frequencies of the participants

		Every meal		Every day		5-6 times		3-4 times		1-2 days		Once every		Once a		Rarely		Never
					a week		a week		a week		15 days		month
Category	Type of food	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%
Milk and dairy products	Milk	0	0	35	9.1	35	9.1	49	12.7	154	40.0	56	14.5	14	3.6	28	7.3	14	3.6
	Yoghurt	0	0	28	7.3	42	10.9	154	40.0	84	21.8	42	10.9	7	1.8	28	7.3	0	0
	Cheese	0	0	63	16.4	70	18.2	140	36.4	56	14.5	14	3.6	14	3.6	28	7.3	0	0
	Ayran (yoghurt-based drink)	0	0	42	10.9	84	21.8	154	40.0	56	14.5	14	3.6	7	1.8	28	7.3	0	0
Meat-egg-legume	Red meat	0	0	14	3.6	28	7.3	28	7.3	175	45.5	91	23.6	14	3.6	14	3.6	21	5.5
	Chicken	0	0	28	7.3	35	9.1	28	7.3	161	41.8	70	18.2	14	3.6	28	7.3	21	5.5
	Turkey-fish	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.0	35	9.1	63	16.4	91	23.6	161	41.8	35	9.1
	Eggs	0	0	21	5.5	28	7.3	140	36.4	91	23.6	42	10.9	21	5.5	28	7.3	14	3.6
	Legumes	0	0	35	9.1	35	9.1	140	36.4	70	18.2	14	3.6	35	9.1	42	10.9	28	7.3
Vegetable-fruit	Leafy greens	0	0.0	21	5.5	49	12.7	49	12.7	147	38.2	70	18.2	7	1.8	14	3.6	35	9.1
	Vegetables	14	3.6	56	14.5	49	12.7	126	32.7	77	20.0	28	7.3	0	0	35	9.1	0	0
	Fresh fruit	14	3.6	21	5.5	91	23.6	154	40.0	70	18.2	0	0.0	0	0	35	9.1	0	0
	Dried fruit	0	0	0	0	0	0.0	0	0.0	70	18.2	91	23.6	105	27.3	105	27.3	14	3.6
Bread-cereal	Bread	217	56.4	168	43.6	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Pasta	0	0	49	12.7	231	60.0	70	18.2	35	9.1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Rice	0	0	42	10.9	42	10.9	140	36.4	84	21.8	42	10.9	7	1.8	28	7.3	0	0
	Bulgur	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	77	20.0	273	70.9	28	7.3	7	1.8	0	0
Fast food	Western style	0	0	7	1.8	28	7.3	161	41.8	42	10.9	84	21.8	21	5.5	28	7.3	14	3.6
	Traditional	0	0	42	10.9	308	80.0	28	7.3	7	1.8	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Patisserie	0	0	63	16.4	238	61.8	49	12.7	35	9.1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Beverages	Packaged fruit juice	0	0	28	7.3	35	9.1	35	9.1	154	40.0	77	20.0	7	1.8	21	5.5	28	7.3
	Carbonated drinks	0	0	21	5.5	91	23.6	154	40.0	63	16.4	14	3.6	7	1.8	35	9.1	0	0
	Tea	315	81.8	70	18.2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Coffee	0	0	28	7.3	42	10.9	140	36.4	70	18.2	56	14.5	14	3.6	35	9.1	0	0
	Herbal tea	0	0	63	16.4	70	18.2	147	38.2	77	20.0	28	7.3	0	0	0	0
Confectionery	Chocolate	0	0	14	3.6	21	5.5	98	25.5	154	40	63	16.4	147	38.2	70	18.2	7	1.8
	Syrup-based desert	0	0	21	5.5	63	16.4	56	14.5	0	0	140	36.4	0	0	0	0	0	0
	Milk puddings	0	0	7	1.8	28	7.3	35	9.1	175	45.5	98	25.5	7	1.8	14	3.6	21	5.5

4 Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the healthy eating behaviors and food consumption frequencies of retail workers. It was determined that the participants ate irregularly by skipping meals and did not have breakfast due to a lack of related habits.

Although the stores’s opening time is 10:00, retail workers start working 3 hours in advance (7 o’clock) to carry out pre-opening arrangement and preparation activities in Turkey. Although the end of working hours is 19.30 in the evening, it may extend until 20.00 depending on the completion of the work. The total working shift in a day is 11 hours and the rest break in a day’s work is 90 minutes. All workers must use these rest breaks, but they are not added to working hours. Retail workers spend a total of 12 and a half hours at work. Since they do not have any breaks in the morning, they spend their meals with fast food products. There are staff rooms in the stores, away from customers, but small and stuffy rooms that are not enough. The staff rooms have machines for serving tea and coffee. There are no areas such as kitchens or dining halls, nor is there any catering company [4 –6]. With regard to office-based employees, a systematic review of the literature suggests that “the office-based workplace has a negative influence on eating behaviours [17] (p. 1771). Ozer stated that more than half of the participants (52.9%) skipped breakfast, despite the presence of evidence that not having breakfast reduces productivity [18]. Breakfast is an important part of a healthy lifestyle and is considered the most important meal of the day [19].

Daily water consumption is very important for human health. However, we determined that the mean daily water consumption of the employees was only 1,079.09 ml, which is well below the daily recommended amount of 1,500–2,000 ml [20]. Song et al. (2023) highlighted in their research in China that many adults do not consume sufficient water and have poor fluid intake habits [21].

Considering that 60–70% of our body consists of water, consuming enough water is necessary for the continuation of our vital functions [22]. Insufficient water consumption can result in various health problems, including headaches, muscle weakness, and fatigue [23, 24]. Therefore, studies are needed to increase water consumption.

The participants’ mean score on the HPLP-nutrition subscale was determined to be 11.79±3.29, which was evaluated to indicate inadequate healthy eating habits. In a study conducted by Yıldırım and Aydın [25], the nutritional behaviors of 320 people working in different sectors were examined, and it was observed that the participants generally exhibited malnutrition behaviors. In another study, Horton Dias and Dawson reported that the healthy eating behaviors of participants working under intensive conditions and working shifts were at a moderate level [26]. The results of these studies reveal that there are some points that need to be improved to ensure that workers acquire healthy nutritional behaviors.

In this study, it was observed that the workers had problems with their healthy food preferences, and the consumption of fast food and carbonated beverages was very common among these participants. In general, it is difficult to find healthy food options in shopping malls in Turkey. Restaurants offering patisserie style (simit, pastry, pastry, etc.), traditional style (doner, kebab, etc.) and western style fast food meal options are common. Healthy food options are hard to come by. However, the workers could eat healthy meals by preparing them at home. The long work hours likely render that option difficult.

In a study on the dietary habits of white-collar workers in China, unhealthy dietary preferences, such as eating out, fast food consumption, and convenience food consumption, were reported to be frequent [27]. Similarly, a study conducted in Southern Italy emphasized that breakfast was skipped, and unhealthy snacks were preferred [28]. It is also emphasized that skipping breakfast and other unhealthy health habits, especially smoking status, have an association on the combined effects [29]. A study conducted in the USA with 9,198 participants revealed that 37% of adults ate at or bought food from a fast-food restaurant every day, and 44% consumed fast food at least once a week [30]. In another study, it was determined that 71% of adults living in Taiwan consumed fast food at least once a week [31]. Lee et al. examined the carbonated beverage consumption habits of adults in the USA. According to their results, 12% of adults consumed at least two carbonated drinks daily, and this rate was especially high among young adults [32].

4.1 Limitations

Our study focused on self-report questionnaires in which participants reflect on their own experiences and perceptions. The low participation rate (42%) is a limitation of this study. Additionally, the results of this study conducted with retail workers cannot be generalized to other sectors.

5 Conclusion

The results of this study showed that the healthy eating behaviors of the retail workers working in the ready-made garment stores of shopping malls were insufficient, their healthy food consumption frequency was low, and their fast-food consumption was high. The health of workers is of great importance at shopping malls, where thousands of individuals congregate on a daily basis. However, it can be challenging to maintain healthy eating habits due to intense work schedules, stress, and time constraints. Retail workers may risk their physical and mental health due to unhealthy eating habits. The health of retail workers working in ready-made garment stores of shopping malls is of great importance as a part of workplace productivity, occupational safety, worker satisfaction, and social responsibility. Employers need to take the necessary measures to protect and improve the health of their workers. Therefore, to protect the health of workers, it is necessary to establish and adhere to a healthy eating plan. Healthy eating habits should be maintained by avoiding skipping meals, reducing fast food consumption, and increasing water consumption. Employees can be encouraged to improve their eating habits through healthy nutrition training organized in workplaces. In addition, workplaces should provide healthy food options for their employees. As a result, it is of great importance for the health of employees that workplaces take the necessary steps to raise awareness among their employees and encourage the adoption of healthy eating habits to maintain them. Protecting the health of retail workers working in ready-made garment stores of shopping malls can support the long-term sustainability and success of businesses. By implementing these measures, employers can enhance workplace productivity, increase employee satisfaction, and fulfill their social responsibility. This is a beneficial approach that improves the overall well-being of both employees and businesses.

Ethical approval

Prior to the study, ethics approval was granted by the Istanbul Medipol University Ethics Committee (decision number: 10840098-604.01.01-E.65470).

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrollment. The participants were informed in detail that all their data would be kept by the researchers and would not be shared with anyone. All participants provided consent, and data confidentiality was ensured.

Conflict of interest

The authors report no potential conflict of interest related to this article.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge and thank all staff of the shopping malls.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

References

Güneş

. Investigation of the reasons why consumers prefer shopping malls and outlets and an application. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Mugla: Muğla SıtkıKoçman University SBE. 2015. Turkish.

Başol

, Saruhan

. Evaluation of working conditions of shopping mall employees in the context of decent work: A qualitative study. Journal of Quality in Social Sciences. 2018;36:127–47. Turkish.

Gezer

. White Collars in the process of precarisation of labour force: A field research on employees in a shop. Istanbul Commerce University Journal of Social Sciences. 2021;20(40):197–219. Turkish.

Günaydın

. Dignified work: An evaluation from the perspective of Turkey. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science. 2015;37:123–48. Turkish.

BaşcıE , Tarihi

. Flexible work in modern agoras: A sociological field research. Sociological Studies. 2019;2(1):1–20. Turkish.

Ministry of Labour and Social Security. Improvement of Working Conditions in Shopping Centres Programmed Inspection Final Report. 2013;1-67. Turkish.

Albawardi

, Jradi

, Al-Hazzaa

. Levels and correlates of physical activity, inactivity and body mass index among Saudi women working in office jobs in Riyadh city. BMC Women’s Health. 2016;16(1):33. doi: 10.1186/s12905-016-0312-8.

Shaw

, Dorrian

, Coates

, Leung

GKW

, Davis

, Rosbotham

, et al. Temporal pattern of eating in night shift workers. Chronobiol Int. 2019;36(12):1613–25. doi: 10.1080/07420528.2019.1660358.

Gupta

, Dorrian

, Coates

, Zadow

, Dollard

, Banks

. The impact of dayshifts and sleepover night shifts on the eating and driving behaviors of residential support workers: An exploratory workplace study. Work. 2020;66(4):827–39. doi: 10.3233/WOR-203228.

10.

Ağır

, Akbay

. Analysis of factors affecting consumers’ fast food consumption frequency. Journal of Tekirdağ Agricultural Faculty. 2021;18(3):436–45. doi: 10.33462/jotaf.821602.Turkish.

11.

Sezer Balcı

, Kolaï

, Yıldız

, Kara

, Çetin

, Erdoğan

. Metabolic syndrome among office workers. Turk J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2018;9(19):50–7. doi: 10.5543/khd.2018.77598.Turkish.

12.

Kolt

, George

, Rebar

, Duncan

, Vandelanotte

, Caperchione

, et al. Associations between quality of life and duration and frequency of physical activity and sedentary behavior: Baseline findings from the WALK 2.0 randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE.. 2017;12(6):e0180072. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180072.

13.

Werneck

, Silva

, Malta

, Gomes

, Souza-Júnior

PRB

, Azevedo

, et al. Associations of sedentary behaviors and incidence of unhealthy diet during the COVID-19 quarantine in Brazil. Public Health Nutr. 2021;24(3):422–6. doi: 10.1017/S1368980020004188.

14.

Walker

, Sechrist

, Pender

. The health-promoting lifestyle profile: Development and psychometric characteristics. Nurs Res. 1987;36(2):76–81.

15.

Esin

. Adaptation of the health-promoting lifestyle behavior scale to Turkish. Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing. 1999;12(45):87–96. Turkish

16.

Gunes

, Imeryuz

, Akalin

, Bekiroglu

, Alphan

, Oguz

, et al. Development and validation of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire to assess dietary intake in Turkish adults. J Pak Med Assoc. 2015;65(7):756–63.

17.

Clohessy

, Walasek

, Meyer

. Factors influencing employees’ eating behaviours in the office-based workplace: A systematic review. Obes Rev. 2019;20(12):1771–80.

18.

Ozer

. The impact of employment status on the nutrition of women with obesity seeking outpatient care. Haliç University. 2012.

19.

Yousefirad

, Sezer

, Pehlivan

, Özyürek

, Bakırhan

, Özkaya

, et al. Lifestyle behaviour changes and adherence to the mediterranean diet during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A cross-sectional study from Turkey. Fenerbahçe University Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;2(3):624–38. doi: 10.56061/fbujohs.1146324.

20.

World Health Organization. Nutrition for health and development .[https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/2_background/en/] (Accessed: 2023).

21.

Song

, Zhang

, Lin

, Wang

, He

, Li

, et al. A study of the fluid intake, hydration status, and health effects among pregnant women in their second trimester in China: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients. 2023;15(7):1739. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15071739.

22.

Sahin

, Catak

, Akbulut

. Evaluation of hydration status during the COVID-19 pandemic: A study of Turkish young adults. J Water Health. 2021;19(4):671–81.

23.

Armstrong

, Muñoz

, Armstrong

. Distinguishing low and high water consumers- A paradigm of disease risk. Nutrients. 2020;12(3):858. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030858.

24.

Popkin

, D’Anci

, Rosenberg

. Water, hydration, and health. Nutr Rev. 2010;68(8):439–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00304.x.

25.

Yıldırım

, Aydın

. The relationship between nutrition behavior and job performance of employees. Journal of Human Sciences. 2018;15(3):2607–18. Turkish.

26.

Horton Dias

, Dawson

. Hospital and shift work influences on nurses’ dietary behaviors: A qualitative study. Workplace Health Saf. 2020;68(8):374–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165079919890351.

27.

Wang

, Wang

, Ye

. Factors affecting dietary behaviors of white-collar employees in China: A qualitative study. Nutrients. 2021;13(5):1591. doi: 10.3390/nu13051591.

28.

Hong

, Hsu

, Hu

. Exploring relationships between health-related lifestyle habits and fatigue among flight attendants and trainees. Work. 2023;74(4):1361–9.

29.

Nishiyama

, Muto

, Minakawa

, Shibata

. The combined unhealthy behaviors of breakfast skipping and smoking are associated with the prevalence of diabetes. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2009;218(4):259–64. doi: 10.1620/tjem.218.259.

30.

Powell

, Nguyen

, Han

. Energy intake from restaurants: Demographics and socioeconomics,2003-2008. Am J Prev Med. 2012;43(5):498–504. doi: 2012.07.041.

31.

Chiang

, Wahlqvist

, Lee

, Huang

, Chen

, Huang

. Fast-food outlets and walkability in school neighborhoods predict fatness in boys and height in girls: A Taiwanese population study. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14(9):1601–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011001042.

32.

Lee

, Zhao

, Park

, Moore

, Hamner

, Galuska

, Blanck

. High added sugars intake among US adults: Characteristics, eating occasions, and top sources, 2015-2018. Nutrients. 2023;15(2):265. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15020265.