Asian and Pacific Migration Journal

Emigration pressures are primarily the result of increasing inequalities between countries which, in turn, are the result of factors internal to less developed countries and their relations with developed countries. Both micro (neoclassical) and macrostructural theories of migration are re-viewed. It is argued that the neoclassical theory of migration is often unjustly criticized and is sufficiently robust to incorporate those structural considerations which are at the core of macrostructural theories. Moreover, the neoclassical theory, with slight modification, can incorporate the “new economics of migration.” The major empirical problem confronting models of international labor migration is that migration flows are constrained by immigration policy. This policy, in turn, is influenced by various special interest groups. The direction and form of migration flows is conditioned by contemporary and historical relationships between source and destination countries.

International standards provide for protection of the family as the fundamental unit of society. However, a consequent right to family reunification for migrants is not sanctioned and continues to be resisted. This article reviews the formulation of the possibility for family reunification as provided for in international and regional standards and by migration policies. It argues that family separation, if inherent in some forms of migration, should not be institutionalized by migration policies and that state sovereignty is limited when dealing with human rights. More specifically it argues that labor migration, as currently developing in Asia, will require appropriate family reunification policies, because it will evolve into some form of settlement.

This article shows that a family perspective is especially important for the analysis of female migration because: (1) women are major participants in “family migration” as defined by governments and, although they benefit from family reunification provisions, they are also constrained by them; (2) migrant women are important economic actors and their participation in economic activity is closely related to the needs of their families, so that the choices that migrant women make regarding work cannot be understood without taking into account the situation of their families and women's roles within them; (3) women are increasingly becoming migrant workers in order to improve the economic status of their families; and (4) women rely on their families to provide various types of support that both make migration possible and condition its outcome. A review of the literature provides evidence supporting each of these observations.

This article addresses two dimensions of the complex interrelationship between the family and international labor migration in Indonesia: the role of the family in influencing labor movements out of Indonesia; and the consequences of this movement on family well-being, structure and functioning. Research on this topic in Indonesia is highly limited due mainly to the recency of large scale international labor migration, inadequate data collection systems, a high incidence of undocumented migration and failure of available research to be sensitive to family related issues. Against a rapidly changing economic and social situation, two major overlapping systems of migration have developed. The official system is focused strongly on the Middle East (although other Asian destinations are increasing in significance) and is dominated by female migrants. The undocumented system is much larger in volume, is focused upon Malaysia, involves more males than females and is becoming permanent in some cases. The role, status and experiences of women migrants in relation to their families (decision making, networks, remittances) are discussed with recommendations for other areas needing further research attention.

The effects of macrostructural processes (institutional and organizational) on Chinese immigrant women are examined, as well as the effects of Canadian immigration policies, past and present, on middle class Chinese women. Race, gender, and class relations inform and at the same time are informed by the institutional processes of Canadian immigration policies, and such practices are modified and transformed through historical, social and political fluctuations. Using information deriving from in-depth interviews, the everyday experiences of middle class Chinese immigrant women who have recently immigrated from Hong Kong is investigated. How these women's lives have been transformed due to institutional processes, as well as the difference in the social organization of Canadian society vis-a-vis Hong Kong society, are examined.

International labor migration has been a persistent feature of Philippine society since the 1970s. While the economic impact of overseas employment has been found to be generally beneficial to families and households, social impact of the phenomenon is less understood. Social transformation in four communities which have experienced large-scale and sustained international labor migration is discussed in the article. Economic prosperity for these communities, particularly for the families with migrant work was the most significant and most tangible impact attributed to oven employment. The negative aspects of overseas employment were related to perceptions of family problems and changes in the character of migrant and members of their families. In general, the nonmaterial changes triggered by overseas employment are still evolving, and changes in social forms or actors filling social roles are not necessarily to be viewed as negative effects of migration.

The 1980s witnessed increasing regional interdependence in Asia through trade and investment. Increasing flows of labor within the region, however, raise questions about three important issues: (1)the assumption that trade, investment and aid will eventually mitigate migration pressure in source countries and the effectiveness of migration policies based on that assumption; (2)whether increasing regional interdependence stimulates or deters migration; (3)the effect of rising interdependence on the political and international relations aspects of migration. As a partial attempt to address these questions, this article examines the regional pattern of economic interdependence by utilizing information concerning trade, investment and migration flows. The concept of interdependence/dependence is discussed within a political context, focusing on migration and policy responses to it. Observations are made on the implications for regional stability and development.

This article examines the Japanese training system for foreign workers from developing countries. While providing foreign trainees with the opportunities to acquire skills and knowledge at enterprises, the system concurrently serves as an adjustment function in the labor market. Many small- and medium-sized enterprises largely in manufacturing the sector accept trainees to cope with labor shortages as well as to gain a foothold for their future business operations overseas. Various studies have shown that there exist a substantial number of abusive cases where training is not provided properly. The fundamental problem derives from the gap between a strict immigration policy and the Japanese economy's structural dependence on foreigners. A clear national consensus must be established on whether or not Japan should accept semi- and unskilled foreign labor. The immigration policy should reflect this in formulating its long-term vision. The training system needs reformation to fulfill its functions appropriately and to protect trainees from abuse.

In the early 1990s, the inflow of two types of legal foreign workers, descendants of Japanese emigrants and foreign trainees, increased substantially, although the increase in the number of illegal workers was even greater. Exploitation of those in the first category has occurred partly because of inadequate information and illegal brokers but the structural cause is wage inequality between sending and receiving countries. Foreign trainees are often seen as disguised cheap labor which constitutes on important element in the survival strategies of Japanese corporations in the global economy. An improved job placement system, more vigorous methods to combat illegal recruitment, and policies to enhance the economic development of trainee-sending countries are recommended.

This research note presents data on trends in foreign workers in Japan, and reviews recent policy changes relating to these workers. Trends from 1973–1993 are reviewed and data for recent years include disaggregation by country of origin, residence within Japan, status of residence, illegal workers, and gender.

This research note presents trends and data on China's labor export from 1979–1991. By 1990, China had deployed over 400,000 workers in 139 countries and regions, with labor export becoming an important source of foreign exchange. Data include China's contract value and number of workers annually; international distribution of Chinese workers; comparative figures for construction; contractors and labor cooperatives; and China's labor exports by corporation.