International Journal of Behavioral Development

This study examined the proposition derived from the integrative developmental contextual theory (IDCT) (Bar-Tal & Teichman, 2005; Teichman & Bar-Tal, in press) that contextual circumstances determining collective self esteem (i.e. conflict and social status), and developmental stage in which identity development is a central issue (pre- and early adolescence) would influence intergroup biases. This proposition was previously examined with Israeli Jewish participants and here is re-examined in three samples, aged 8—17, including Israeli Arabs and two groups from the Palestinian Authority. The three samples were based in different intergroup contexts in which their group status was relatively high, medium or low. The findings demonstrate differences in the relationship between contextually defined collective self-esteem and intergroup attitudes. Results confirmed the hypothesis that in conflict, irrespective of age highest intergroup biases would be displayed by the high status group. However, the hypothesis that the lowest status group would express only more negativity toward the out-group was not confirmed. The developmental hypothesis that pre- and early adolescents from the high status group would express most varied and extreme biases was also confirmed. With some exceptions in the middle status group, all older adolescents displayed moderation in biases.

Individuals vary in the degree to which they are representative, or typical, of their social groups. To investigate the effects of atypicality on intergroup attitudes, elementary-school-age children (N = 97) attending a summer school program were assigned to novel color groups that included typical (blue or green) and atypical (light blue or light green) members. Children's state self-esteem, ingroup identification, and intergroup attitudes (e.g., trait ratings, evaluations, peer preferences) were assessed following several weeks in the classroom. Results indicated that atypicality primarily affected children's views of their ingroup. Among younger (but not older) children, atypical group members viewed themselves as more similar to — but less happy being a member of — their ingroup than typical group members.

A cross-sectional design was used to inquire about peer relations of 85 second and fifth grade students in two integrated Anglophone and Francophone schools in Montreal, Canada. Data on same- and cross-ethnic identification, interactive companions and mutual best friends were collected for each student. Overall findings were that students had more companions from their own than the other ethno-linguistic group, but equivalent numbers of mutual best friends. Same- and cross-ethnic mutual friends were rated similarly in terms of friendship quality (as assessed by the McGill Friendship Questionnaire). Exploratory in-depth interviews with 16 students indicated that cross-ethnic relationships ran into two barriers. One was that they were limited to only a few activities and locations and so did not become personalized. The second was that in-group and out-group friends did not always mix well.

Two studies were conducted to evaluate interventions, based upon the extended contact hypothesis and multiple classification skills training, which aimed to promote children's positive intergroup attitudes towards two stigmatized groups. Study 1 tested whether extended contact and multiple classification skills training changed out-group attitudes towards the disabled among 6—9 year-old children. Out-group attitudes were significantly more positive only in the extended contact condition compared to the control. Study 2 involved four conditions: control, extended contact, modified multiple classification skills training and a combination of both interventions. Again, only the 6—11 year-old children who experienced the extended contact interventions (extended contact and combined) showed significantly more positive attitudes towards the refugee out-group compared to the control. The implications of these findings for the development of prejudice-reduction strategies in children will be discussed.

Tolerant judgments of Muslims' political rights and dissenting beliefs and practices by ethnic Dutch adolescents (12—18 years) were examined. Participants (N = 632) made judgments of different types of behaviors and different contexts in an experimental questionnaire study. As in other studies, tolerance was found to not be a global construct. Adolescents took into account various aspects of what they were asked to tolerate and the sense in which they should be tolerant. The type of actor, the nature of the social implication of the behavior, the underlying belief type, and the dimension of tolerance, all made a difference to the tolerant judgments. Additionally, the findings strongly suggest that tolerance judgments do not develop through an age-related stage-like sequence where an intolerant attitude is followed by tolerance. For females, there were no age differences, and older males were less tolerant than younger males. There were also gender differences with males being less tolerant for some types of behavior and females being less tolerant for behaviors that negatively affected Muslim females. Level of education had a positive effect on tolerance. The findings are discussed with reference to social-cognitive domain theory.

Developmental theory suggests that a well-developed ethnic identity serves as a secure position which allows people to be more open and accepting to people from other ethnic groups. To examine this prediction, two studies were carried out. In Study 1, 713 college freshmen from four ethnic groups were surveyed regarding positive attitudes toward other groups and were assigned to ethnic identity statuses on the basis of scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992). The results showed that Asian American and Latino students with an achieved ethnic identity reported significantly more positive attitudes toward other groups than did those in ethnic identity diffusion. Study 2 used qualitative methods with 124 adolescents from five ethnic groups. Ethnic identity and intergroup attitudes were assessed with open-ended questions regarding views of one's own ethnicity and experiences with other ethnic groups. Results showed that ethnic identity achieved adolescents, compared to diffuse adolescents, gave responses indicating greater awareness and understanding of intergroup relations. Overall, the results provide evidence that a secure ethnic identity is associated with positive intergroup attitudes and mature intercultural thinking.

US majority (European-American) and minority (African-American, Latin-American, Asian-American) children were interviewed regarding race-based and non-race based reasons for exclusion in interracial peer contexts (N = 685), evenly divided by gender at 9, 12, and 15 years of age (4th, 7th, and 10th grades) attending 13 US public schools. All children judged race-based exclusion as wrong using moral reasons. In contrast, non-race based reasons such as lack of shared interests, parental discomfort, and peer pressure were viewed as more wrong by minority children than by majority children. This pattern decreased with age for all participants. Further minority children were more likely to expect that racial exclusion occurs, indicating that ethnic background, social experience, and age are significantly related to interpretations of interracial peer motives for exclusion.

This study characterizes several aspects of emerging ethnic identity in childhood and its associations with interethnic group social preferences. Understanding these processes is important, as early interethnic group social practices may form a foundation for later interethnic group attitudes and behaviors in adolescence. Children of Cambodian, Dominican, and Portuguese heritage (aged 6—12 years) consistently and accurately identified with labels of their family's nationality of origin across the three study years, and reported strong ethnic pride. In support of existing developmental models of ethnic identity in adolescence, older children demonstrated greater ethnic identity exploration than younger children. Importantly, for second-generation children, a positive sense of ethnic identity was not only associated with ingroup social preferences, but also ethnic outgroup social preferences. Findings are discussed with regard to existing models of ethnic identity development.

An increasing amount of research explores how children distinguish different aspects of ethnic group attitudes. However, little work has focused on how these aspects tie in with other social and psychological processes. In the present study, 112 black and white children aged 5-, 7- and 9-years completed tests of implicit and explicit ethnic group attitudes, racial and ethnic identification, and self-esteem. Whereas all children exhibited coherent identification with ethnicity defined in terms of family ancestry, only black children identified with ethnicity as defined by racial colour terms. There were no differences in black and white children's self-esteem. Children from both ethnic groups stereotyped only the black character. This stereotyping was stable with age. Positivity was greater towards the black than the white target on implicit and explicit tasks. Negativity towards the white target was evidenced on the implicit task. Positivity, but not stereotyping, was greater on the explicit task compared with the implicit task. Black but not white children's in-group identification was associated with implicit in-group stereotypes. Self-esteem was related to in- and out-group stereotyping and positivity for white but not black children. The implications of these results for social identity development theory and social identity theory are discussed.

This study examined the effects on 6- and 8-year old children (n = 160) of rejection versus acceptance by an initial group, the reason for the rejection or acceptance (personal versus category-based), and the norms (inclusion versus exclusion) of a new group to which the children were assigned, on their negative affect and attitudes towards the initial group, new group and an outgroup. Results showed that rejected compared with accepted children had a negative attitude towards the initial group, but that both were equally positive towards their new group. In addition, whereas accepted participants were less positive towards the outgroup, rejected participants displayed outgroup prejudice. Results also revealed main effects on group attitudes of participants' age and group norms, as well as a peer status × status reason interaction, but participants' negative affect was only affected by their age. The basis of the effect of peer group rejection on outgroup prejudice is discussed.