Perceptual and Motor Skills

The objective of the study was to develop and apply a tactical-cognitive training program based on the use of video feedback and questioning in real game time, in order to improve tactical knowledge in volleyball. A two-group quasi-experimental design was used with a sample of eight female players (M = 14.8yr., SD = 0.7), who were divided into an Experimental group (n = 4) and a Control group (n = 4). The independent variable was the tactical-cognitive training program, which was applied for 11 wk. in a 6 × 6 game situation training context. The dependent variable was tactical knowledge, which was measured by problem representation and strategy planning with a verbal protocol. The results showed that after applying the intervention program the players in the Experimental group showed more complex, sophisticated, and structured tactical knowledge, compared with the players from the Control group. These results suggest that complementing the training process with cognitive tools may enable athletes to increases their tactical behavior and presumably improve their performance.

Explicitly monitoring one's own actions has been noted as detrimental to the performance of fine motor skills under duress. Offensive skills rather than defensive skills are typically studied in this context. Defensive techniques typically require skills such as footwork and continuous movement, as opposed to more precise, hand–eye coordinated action. Explicit monitoring theory may be less relevant for defensive skills than offensive skills when playing under pressure. Archival data (66 years) for teams and for individual players was compiled from the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Football League (NFL). For basketball (n = 778) and football (n = 515) teams, regular season offensive and defensive statistics similarly predicted success in the postseason, which was assumed to create more pressure. For individual basketball players (n = 5,132), nine indices of offensive (FG, free throw and three-point shooting, offensive win shares, points, and assists) and defensive (defensive win shares, steals, and blocks) production were compared; among these, three-point shooting percentage was least correlated from season to postseason, suggesting it is especially variable under pressure. A balanced basketball or football team that focuses on both offense and defense may be most successful.

This study was designed to pilot a survey to explore players' perception of home advantage in a rugby league. Twenty-seven players from one team with an identified home advantage believed a home advantage existed as a result of their home crowd (52%), family and friends' support (41%), normal travel (45%) and sleeping arrangements (37%), home weather conditions (48%), and familiarity with playing amenities (37%). However, the players were less definite about influences while playing away from home. The current sample of players identified differing influences, highlighting individual variations in perceived determinants. Individual interviews or focus groups will be required for further exploration.

The aim of the study was to compare the psychophysical effects of rock climbing with a supervised fitness training in adults. Thirty-three healthy participants (M age = 32yr., SD = 7) participated in rock climbing or in fitness training. The participants' functional fitness, anxiety, and mood states were tested before and after 3 mo. of training. There was significant improvement of physical fitness in both groups after the intervention period. Anxiety significantly decreased after each single training session at the end of both courses. Differential effects in the rock-climbing group, as compared to the fitness group, emerged only on Vigor. Specifically, the rock-climbing group showed a decreasing trend in Vigor while the fitness group showed an increasing trend of Vigor after the intervention.

The theoretical explanations used to explain changes in performance during motor imagery and physical practice conditions are inconsistent when memory retrieval is and is not required. This study measured performance time and workload during acquisition, a retention test requiring memory retrieval, and a retention test not requiring memory retrieval using a key-pressing task. The participants were assigned to physical practice with or without instructions to learn or motor imagery with or without instructions to learn. A diagram of the keys was presented during the practice trials and the first retention test, but was not presented during the second test. The results revealed no effect for the learning instructions or performance changes during the practice phases. However, during both retention tests participants in the physical practice conditions performed significantly faster than those in the motor imagery conditions. Also, higher levels of workload were reported for the motor imagery conditions when the retention test required memory retrieval compared to the other phases. A discussion of the implications of workload on performance is presented with respect to varying practice conditions.

Previous studies have shown that men can balance a dowel rod on the index finger for a longer time than women can. The factors that account for the difference are unknown, but the difference may be attributable either to a difference in whole-body agility or a difference in the use of visual cues. Three experiments involving a total of 62 adult women with a mean age of 21.2yr. (SD = 3.8) and 62 adult men with a mean age of 21.9yr. (SD = 6.6) tested these potential explanations. Experiment 1 replicated the sex difference and assessed the relevance of whole-body agility by comparing standing and seated conditions. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the role of rod length and visual fixation point, respectively. Each experiment yielded a significant sex difference, but the difference was not affected by the participant's posture, the length of the rod, or the fixation point. Possible alternative explanations for the difference include differences in (1) the speed of processing degree of visual tilt; (2) arm mass, which affects the inertia of the balancing system; and (3) experience in open-skill sports.

Typewriting studies which compare novice and expert typists have suggested that highly trained typing skills involve cognitive process with an inner and outer loop, which regulate keystrokes and words, respectively. The present study investigates these loops longitudinally, using multi-level modeling of 1,091,707 keystroke latencies from 62 children (M age = 12.6yr.) following an online typing course. Using finger movement repetition as indicator of the inner loop and words typed as indicator of the outer loop, practicing keystroke latencies resulted in different developmental curves for each loop. Moreover, based on plateaus in the developmental curves, the inner loop seemed to require less practice to develop than the outer loop.

The guidance hypothesis suggested that excessive extrinsic feedback facilitates motor performance but blocks the processing of intrinsic information. The present study tested the tenet of guidance hypothesis in self-controlled feedback by controlling the feedback frequency. The motor learning effect of limiting absolute feedback frequency was examined. Thirty-six participants (25 men, 11 women; M age = 25.1 yr., SD = 2.2) practiced a hand-grip force control task on a dynamometer by the non-dominant hand with varying amounts of feedback. They were randomly assigned to: (a) Self-controlled, (b) Yoked with self-controlled, and (c) Limited self-controlled conditions. In acquisition, two-way analysis of variance indicated significantly lower absolute error in both the yoked and limited self-controlled groups than the self-controlled group. The effect size of absolute error between trials with feedback and without feedback in the limited self-controlled condition was larger than that of the self-controlled condition. In the retention and transfer tests, the Limited self-controlled feedback group had significantly lower absolute error than the other two groups. The results indicated an increased motor learning effect of limiting absolute frequency of feedback in the self-controlled condition.

Although creativity provides a considerable number of advantages, many teachers have direct and indirect prejudices against creative students since they may display distracting and disruptive behaviors toward teachers and classmates. To determine how teachers' creativity affects their students' creative development, 90 preschool and elementary school teachers and 90 pupils were assessed for creative thinking. The children's sex was not correlated with creativity scores. There were small, significant relationships between various measures of preschool teachers' and students' creativity.

Active video games (AVGs) may be useful for movement skill practice. This study examined children's skill execution while playing Xbox Kinect™ and during movement skill assessment. Nineteen children (10 boys, 9 girls; M age = 7.9yr., SD = 1.4) had their skills assessed before AVG play and then were observed once a week for 6 wk. while playing AVGs for 50min. While AVG play showed evidence of correct skill performance (at least 30–50% of the time when playing table tennis, tennis, and baseball), nearly all skills were more correctly performed during skill assessment (generally more than 50% of the time). This study may help researchers to better understand the role AVGs could play in enhancing real life movement skills.

Home advantage is smaller in baseball than in other major professional sports for men, specifically football, basketball, or soccer. This paper advances an explanation. It begins by reviewing the main observations to support the view that there is little or no home advantage in individual sports. It then presents the case that home advantage originates in impaired teamwork among the away players. The need for teamwork and the extent of it vary from sport to sport. To the extent that a sport requires little teamwork it is more like an individual sport, and the home team would be expected to enjoy only a small advantage. Interactions among players on the same side (teamwork) are much less common in baseball than in the other sports considered.

This study examined the validity and reliability of the Cantonese Borg 6–20 Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale in monitoring exercise intensity among Chinese older adults. A total of 40 apparently healthy older adults (16 men, 24 women; M age = 69.8yr., SD = 4.56) performed two trials of three intermittent exercise tests administered in random order using the cycle ergometer. Results revealed significant differences of RPE, HR, and VO₂ between different workloads, and there were moderate to high correlations between RPE and HR and VO₂, respectively. Results also found moderate consistency of RPE between Trial 1 and Trial 2. These indicated that the Cantonese 6–20 RPE scale can be used as a valid and reliable tool for monitoring exercise intensity among the Chinese older adults.

It has been reported that periodic resistance training (retraining after short-term detraining) could maintain muscle performance. However, the training volume used in previous studies differed between continuous and periodic training groups. This study compared strength gains following 20 sessions of continuous and periodic resistance training programs. 60 healthy, detrained women were randomly assigned into one of two groups: (1) continuous resistance training group or (2) retraining resistance group. The continuous resistance training group performed a non-interrupted resistance training program for 10wk., while the retraining resistance group trained for 5wk., detrained 2wk., and resumed training for 5wk. All participants performed three sets of 8–12 maximum repetitions of lower- and upper-body exercises two days per week, with at least 48 hr. between sessions. There was no significant difference on knee extensors and elbow flexors peak torque gain between the continuous resistance training group and the retraining resistance group. The results suggest that 2 wk. of detraining does not affect strength gains after a total of 10wk. in detrained women.

Technological advances have driven the development of information technology (IT) products and communication using mobile devices has become a part of daily life. When using mobile devices, reading time and font size are important communication elements that significantly affect reading performance. However, studies of reading performance in older samples have mainly used printed material or computer monitors; this study examined the performance of users when reading text messages on the interfaces of mobile devices and described their visual limitations. Sixty-two participants took part in the experiment, which involved displaying different font sizes and exposure times. The younger group read 10-point font accurately, while the older group had much worse accuracy, even at 14 points. The younger group correctly read text messages displayed for 0.4 sec. above 80% of the time, while the older group's accuracy was severely impaired even when text was displayed for 1 sec.

Visual perception comprises established responses to visual stimuli. Conceptual development accompanies the development of visual perception skills. Both visual perception and sufficient conceptual development is vital to a child's academic skills and social participation. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between conceptual development and visual perceptual skills of six-year-old children. 140 children were administered Bracken's (1998) Basic Concept Scale (BBCS–R) and the Frostig Developmental Visual Perception Test. BBCS–R scores were weakly correlated with FDVPT Discrimination of figure-ground, and had moderate and significant correlations with Constancy of the figures, Perception of position in space, Perception of spatial relation, and the Total score on visual perception. Also, a moderate correlation was found between the total scores of the FDVPT and the total score of the BBCS–R.

It was hypothesized that an individual's chronotype might influence the response to physical activity at a given time of day. This study aimed to analyze the psychophysiological responses during a walking task at different times of day in individuals with different chronotypes. 46 students (M age = 24.8yr., SD = 7.2) filled in the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire to determine chronotypes. Heart rate, walking time, and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured during two self-paced walking sessions: one in the morning (08:30) and one in the afternoon (15:30). A multivariate analysis of variance found a significant interaction between chronotype and time of day. The post hoc analysis showed a significant difference for RPE in the morning session, with evening types reporing a higher RPE compared with the morning types. The chronotype and the time of day when a physical task is undertaken can influence the RPE response, although it might not influence physiological or performance parameters. This has to be taken into account, because it can affect test reliability as well as possibly have a negative influence on the affective responses to a given task.

This study examined the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a gross motor skill program for toddlers. An 8-wk. skills program in which children practiced three skills was implemented for 10min. daily in two randomly designated childcare centers. Two other centers served as the control group. Recruitment and retention rates were collected for feasibility. Data on professional development, children's participation, program duration, and appropriateness of the lessons were collected for acceptability, and the Test of Gross Motor Development–2 and Get Skilled, Get Active (total of 28 points) were used to look at the potential efficacy. The participants were 60 toddlers (M age = 2.5 yr., SD = 0.4; n = 29 boys), and the retention rate was 95%. Overall participation was 76%, and educators rated 98% of the lessons as appropriate. Compared with the control group, the intervention group showed significantly greater improvements in motor skills (p < .05, Cohen's d = 1.13). This study shows that a brief intervention, which is easy to integrate on a daily basis in childcare settings, can improve motor skills among toddlers.

Purposive sampling was used to recruit 1,200 preschoolers between the ages of three and seven from 12 preschools throughout Taiwan in order to examine locomotor skills, object control skills, and fundamental motor skills with respect to sex, age, and body mass index (BMI). Fundamental motor skills were measured using the TGMD–2. Only age had a significant influence on locomotor skills, object control skills, and fundamental motor skills; sex had a small influence on object control skills, and BMI had a very limited influence on all three categories. The difference from previous studies related to BMI may be due to the different items included in the various tests, the number of trials conducted, and ways in which BMI was categorized.

This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Korean version of the 21-item Exercise Dependence Scale–Revised (EDS–R). The EDS–R was designed to measure the multidimensional aspects of exercise dependence symptoms such as withdrawal, continuance, tolerance, lack of control, reductions, time, and intention. Although the EDS–R has demonstrated sound psychometric properties, it has only been validated in Western samples. Cross-cultural validations of the instrument may increase the knowledge of exercise dependence. Therefore, this study aimed to contribute to the file by investigating the validity and utility of the construct of the EDS–R, using a non-Western sample. 402 adult participants who were over 18 years of age and who reported exercising at least once a week were asked to complete the EDS–R. The results from factor analyses supported that the seven-factor model of exercise dependence symptoms showed an adequate fit for both men and women. The EDS–R scores differentiated between samples, with varying amounts of exercise; 15.4% of the sample was classified as being at risk for exercise dependence. In sum, the results indicated that the EDS–R is a psychometrically reliable assessment tool for exercise dependence symptoms in Korea.

Developing motor competence and physical fitness can affect the maintenance of a sufficient level of physical activity in children and adolescents. This study assesses the relationship between motor competence and physical fitness from childhood through early adolescence. A cross-sectional sample of 194 participants from 4 to 16 years old were divided into three groups; 4–6yr. (n = 42, M age = 5.2, SD 0.6), 11–12yr. (n = 58, M age = 12.4, SD = 0.3), and 15–16 yr. (n = 94, M age = 15.9, SD = 0.4). To assess motor competence, each child completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC). To measure physical fitness, three tasks (strength, speed, and endurance) were selected from the Test of Physical Fitness (TPF). To analyze the significance of the difference between the correlation coefficient in the three age groups (samples) (4–6, 11–12, and 15–16yr.), Fischer r-to-z transformation was used. The correlation (Pearson's) between motor competence and physical fitness in the age groups was statistically higher for the youngest age groups (4–6 and 11–12yr.) and the adolescent group (age 15–16). The differences between the two youngest age groups were not statistically significant. The results demonstrate that the correlation between motor competence and physical fitness decreases with age.

Despite the many benefits of involvement in youth sports, participation in them declines throughout childhood and adolescence. The present study performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 studies reporting dropout rates in youth soccer, involving a total of 724,036 youths ages 10–18 years from five countries. The mixed effects meta-regression analyses took into account age and sex as statistical moderators of dropout rate. Potential articles were identified through computerized searches of the databases PubMed, MedLine, Embase, and SportDiscus up until August 2014, without any further time limit. Based on results reported in the 10 included articles, the annual weighted mean dropout rate is 23.9% across the included cohorts. Meta-regression indicated that annual dropout rates are stable from the ages of 10–19 years, with higher rates for girls (26.8%) compared to boys (21.4%). The present study suggests that youth soccer players are prone to dropout rates in which close to one-fourth of players leave the sport annually, which appears to be a consistent finding across ages 10–18 years.

This study assesses the association between disease onset side (dominant or non-dominant) and vision on postural control of Parkinson's disease patients. Patient volunteers composed two groups, according to the onset side affected: Dominant group (n = 9; M age = 66.1 yr., SD = 7.2; 6 women, 3 men) and Non-dominant group (n = 9; M age = 67.4yr., SD = 6.4; 6 women, 3 men). The groups' postural control was assessed by posturography during quiet upright stance in two conditions, Eyes open and Eyes closed. Two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs; group × condition) with repeated measures for the second factor assessed the differences associated with affected hemibody and vision on postural control. Analyses indicated that patients with the dominant side affected also presented significantly greater variation in center of pressure than those with the non-dominant side affected, mainly in the Eyes closed condition. The results demonstrate a higher reliance on vision in the dominant side, possibly to compensate somatosensory system impairments. These results also highlight the importance of analyzing the hemibody affected by the disease when postural control is assessed in this population.