Psychology of Music

Although musicians often have to perform under high pressure, there is little systematic research into the foci of attention needed to maintain performance in such situations. In the current study, we asked elite musicians to report what they focus on and think about during moments of high pressure, using two retrospective methods (concept mapping and verbal reports). For concept mapping, seven expert teachers from an elite academy of music generated clusters of statements about this issue. In the verbal reports, 44 elite musicians described their thoughts and focus of attention. Concept mapping resulted in six clusters, of which “focus on physical aspects,” “thoughts that give confidence,” and “music-related focus” were shown to be the main foci of attention, together representing 85.2% of all 190 statements generated in the verbal reports. Statements regarding “music-related focus” represented 49.7% of all statements. In conclusion, to maintain a high level of performance under pressure, experienced musicians frequently focus on music-related information, physical aspects, and thoughts that give confidence. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Adults’ (N = 220) reported motivations for listening to sad music after experiencing adverse negative circumstances were examined by exploring how their music selection strategies related to (a) their self-regulatory goals, and (b) reported effects of listening. The effects of music selection strategies, self-regulatory goals, and reported effects on the achievement of mood enhancement were also explored using a retrospective survey design. The findings indicate that music choice is linked to the individual’s identified self-regulatory goals for music listening and to expected effects. Additionally, the results show that if individuals had intended to achieve mood enhancement through music listening, this was often achieved by first experiencing cognitive reappraisal or distraction. The selection of music with perceived high aesthetic value was the only music selection strategy that directly predicted mood enhancement. Where respondents indicated that they chose music with the intention of triggering memories, this was negatively related to the self-regulatory goal of mood enhancement.

When musicians play music, they seem to be fully concentrating and occupied with their performance. But what happens when concentration is affected, such as during examinations or concert performances? Our hypothesis was that the expressiveness of the music would be affected due to the fact that an additional cognitive load would occupy the cognitive resources that are needed for the timing and articulation of the musical action. To test this hypothesis, we asked experienced musicians to perform a musical piece with and without a secondary task (dual task condition). Jury judgements revealed that pieces performed under an additional cognitive load suffered a decrease in expressiveness. An analysis of the audio recordings revealed that for almost all performances, the durations of the pauses in between musical phrases during the performance in dual task conditions were significantly shorter than those performed without a secondary task, while the musical phrases themselves were not affected in their duration. We attribute this phenomenon to the fact that musicians can base the timing during playing on a (non-cognitive) corporeal reference, while during the pauses, this reference is lost. Insight into this effect may lead to educational practices that teach how to cope with additional load.

Distraction and relaxation are regularly recommended as part of a pain management toolkit, with increasing research highlighting the inclusion of music as part of pain management toolkit. However, minimal research has assessed the role of practice effects or familiarity with these techniques when used consistently over time. Passive distraction (participant-selected preferred music) and active distraction (Progressive Muscle Relaxation; PMR) were compared against a no distraction control on the cold-pressor test (CPT). Seventy healthy participants completed the CPT with and without distraction at baseline and 1 week later. Experimental participants practised their distraction strategies daily between trials (7 days), with control participants keeping an activity log. Familiarity with and preference for distractors increased significantly over time, enhancing pain threshold. PMR and music reduced anxiety, enhanced pain tolerance, minimized pain perception and pain ratings. The active distraction of PMR enhanced self-efficacy to a greater extent than music and also regulated heart rate. Repeated exposure to distraction and relaxation approaches enhanced optimal arousal and complexity, maximizing pain management. It is suggested that both PMR, and music, are used together as part of a multidimensional toolkit for pain management.

This study examined differences in music perception between children with executive function deficits (EF deficits) and typically-developing children. The role of executive functions in music perception ability was also examined. Participants included 71 children (40 males), aged 9–11 years. The study utilized a between-subjects control group design in which executive functions were measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), and music perception ability was measured by several music listening tasks of tone and timing discrimination. The children with EF deficits performed significantly poorer than their typically-developing peers when discriminating between duration of tones and when discriminating between rhythm patterns. However, pitch and melodic perception did not show performance decrement. The executive function of working memory was the only independent predictor of duration and rhythm perception ability as shown in multiple regression models. In conclusion, there are significant differences in duration and rhythm perception ability between children with and without executive dysfunction. Moreover, music perception testing may serve as a potential measure of executive functions assessment, and given that improvements in working memory are desirable for children with EF deficits, music-based activities may be a promising medium for working memory intervention.

Contemporary music from the Western Classical tradition, a term usually reduced to simply “contemporary music,” is widely considered as being quite under-represented on the current musical scene in comparison to the music from any other period. As a perspective from which to explore this aversion beyond the obvious likes and dislikes, our aim was to find non-observable variables or latent dimensions by means of psychological constructs modelling attitudes towards contemporary music in a relevant population, such as music teachers to-be, in order to inform thinking about how to effect a change in this aversion. In doing so, a quantitative psychometric instrument was developed, validated and applied to a sample of this population during their university training period. Retrieved data was analysed by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, leading to the proposal of a second-order, structural equations model comprising three constructs identified as “Perceived complexity & stridency”, “Desire to discover” and “Aesthetic respect”. Results could help in a) finding strategies to address aversion, both by the identification of its latent components and their interrelations; and b) proposing a model suitable to be compared to that of other population subgroups and to be connected to other variables for testing the effectiveness of future experimental actions in the teacher training context.

The Takadimi system of rhythm pedagogy codified by Hoffman, Pelto, and White is supposedly an effective means to teach both dictation and reading. This article evaluates the potential of Takadimi as a method for rhythm dictation and rhythm reading, considering its strengths and weaknesses in light of psychology, music theory, and music theory pedagogy. Takadimi’s main forte is that it is based on the psychologically and neurobiologically valid notion of the beat; most of Takadimi’s shortcomings arise from its apathy towards implicit beats. After exploring the psychological reality of the implicit beat, this study considers how an awareness of the implicit beat can make the Takadimi system a more consistent and accurate rhythm solmization method than it currently is.

The present research examines adolescents’ appreciation of popular music and musicians against the background of the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (ODT; Brewer, 1991). Within the framework of ODT, adolescents should favour music which maintains a balance between feelings of inclusion and distinctiveness (Abrams, 2009). Our research contributes to ODT by developing a diagnostic instrument, focusing on both the music and image, in order to measure objectively the degree of typicality. We hypothesized typicality is an essential factor which indicates an optimal level of distinctiveness of musical and personal style and thus predicts music appreciation in terms of a social identity. In the studies, adolescent participants evaluated different songs and images from actual popular music. Based on the methods of Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory (IRT), we identified 11 items to determine the typicality of music stimuli and 5 items to determine the typicality of musicians’ images. The results show that typicality is a reliable predictor of optimal distinctiveness and adolescent music appreciation (p < .01). Finally, we discuss additional experimental use of these scales and implications for research in the context of adolescents’ musical identities.

Program notes are distributed before performances at arts centers throughout the country, but research on the effects of this kind of explicit information on audience experience has led to contradictory findings. This study experimentally manipulated the kind of information given to 506 schoolchildren attending a music performance at a local arts center, and assessed the effects of this information on their enjoyment of, attention to, and comprehension of the performance. Results suggest that explicit information of the sort found in a program note can elevate the attention children pay to a performance and their comprehension of it. Program notes did not as a rule elevate enjoyment, except in the case of a subgroup of participants for whom the performance was likely a new experience. This difference suggests that listeners’ prior experience may be an important mediating factor in the relationship between program notes and enjoyment.