The Bright and Dark Aspects of Grit in the Pursuit of Success

The association between grit and other trait variables

Much of the research examining the relationship between grit and other personality traits has focused on the global traits comprising the Five-Factor Model. In a recent meta-analysis of 73 grit studies, Credé, Tynan, and Harms (2017) found that grit was strongly related to conscientiousness and moderately related to agreeableness, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness. In addition, the study found positive relationships between grit and self-efficacy, mental toughness, self-control, positive affect, gratitude, and hope. Grit was negatively related to depression. While empirical findings linking grit to other personality traits offer a generally positive view of grit, the scope of these studies tend to be quite limited and focused on broad trait measures. Furthermore, these studies often treat grit as a higher order construct composed of two lower order facets, the consistency and perseverance subscales (Credé et al., 2017), which can be combined into an overall grit score. However, meta-analytic evidence indicates the grit-perseverance subscale better predicts performance than either the grit-consistency subscale or overall grit. This confusing pattern of results argues for examining the two subscales separately, in addition to summing the subscales to form a composite grit score. Accordingly, a great deal remains unknown about how grit, as a composite and as a two-factor construct, relates to other individual difference variables associated with personal success.

Conceptual links between grit and individual difference variables of success

Proactive personality represents a relatively new personality trait characterized by the active identification of problems and solutions as well as perseverance in the pursuit of meaningful change (Bateman & Crant, 1993). While this trait is particularly relevant to organizational settings, like grit, it is linked to success and should generalize across social domains. According to Bateman and Crant (1993), proactive individuals fully assess their environment and consistently work to locate and resolve issues. They focus on influencing their surrounding environment rather than reacting or adjusting to environmental influences. This action-oriented behavior that characterizes individuals with proactive personality may also be linked to the perseverance for long-term goals that defines gritty individuals.

Indeed, a meta-analysis of by Fuller and Marler (2009) found that proactive personality positively correlated with self-efficacy in jobs, perseverance, and career success. These findings suggest that, similar to gritty people, proactive individuals formulate goals, work through problems, and persevere in order to achieve desired outcomes. However, a distinguishing characteristic of proactive individuals may be their focus on goals relating to constructive change in their environment rather than simply the pursuit of personal goals and individual success.

An important skill for adapting to changing social environments and initiating self-improvement efforts, personal growth initiative (PGI) is defined as intentional engagement in changing and developing as a person (Robitschek, 1998). PGI enables individuals to seek and seize new opportunities over time and to develop strong interpersonal relationships and to learn new skills (Robitschek et al., 2012). Furthermore, people in diverse contexts who demonstrated high PGI also exhibited more adaptive coping skills in dealing with the challenges and pressures of life, including higher levels of emotional, social, and psychological well-being and lower levels of psychological distress compared with those with lower PGI (Blackie, Jayawickreme, Forgeard, & Jayawickreme, 2015; Weigold, Porfeli, & Weigold, 2013). Since the successful achievement of long-term goals often requires learning new skills and coping with challenges, gritty people should demonstrate self-improvement skills for sustaining goal-directed efforts in the face of adversity and stress. Although no empirical linkages between these two constructs have been explored to date, conceptually, grit and PGI share a number of interrelated characteristics.

Based on achievement motivation research, Helmreich and Spence (1978) defined competitiveness as the desire to win in interpersonal situations. Competitiveness is linked to a number of adaptive characteristics and aspects of success including need to achieve (Smither & Houston, 1992) as well as self-efficacy, conscientiousness, and performance (Brown, Cron, & Slocum, 1998). Recently, Neneh (2018) found that competitiveness mediates the process of opportunity recognition and action taking that is associated with success and achievement. While several lines of inquiry support the conceptual link between grit and competitiveness, research by Dugan, Hochstein, Rouziou, and Britton (2019) provides empirical evidence linking competitiveness and grit, finding they are positively correlated and both predict higher sales performance.

Perfectionism is generally defined as setting excessively high-performance standards for oneself and striving for flawlessness accompanied by critical self-evaluations and concerns regarding others’ evaluations (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). While some researchers argue that perfectionism can play an important role in achieving success and elite performance (Stoeber, Haskew, & Scott, 2015), perfectionism is also associated with a variety of psychological disorders, such as depression (Hewitt, Mittelstaedt, & Flett, 1990) anxiety (Flett, Hewitt, & Dyck, 1989), eating disorders (Laessle, Kittl, Fichter, & Pirke, 1988), and personality disorders (Wonderlich & Swift, 1990).

Although little research, if any, exists on the relationship between perfectionism and grit, conceptually the two constructs both incorporate goal setting in the pursuit of success. While grit leaves open the nature of the long-term goal, the individual is passionately committed to achieving, perfectionism, by definition, involves unrealistically high goals. Research by Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, and Marsella (2015) found that grittier individuals were less likely to give up when failing and more willing to suffer monetary loss to persist in failing efforts. Similarly, Kalia, Fuesting, and Cody (2019) observed that grit-perseverance indirectly predicted increased effort on a very hard Sudoku puzzle (a low-constraint condition) through reduced cognitive flexibility. These findings suggest that the perseverance component of grit may be a liability when faced with insolvable problems or insurmountable obstacles, especially if these become unattainably high goals. However, before considering the relationship between grit and perfectionism, it is important to recognize that perfectionism is often conceptualized as a multidimensional construct containing both personal and social dimensions (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Accordingly, perfectionistic behavior patterns may represent (1) self-oriented perfectionism reflecting a striving for perfection in one’s own pursuits, (2) other-oriented perfectionism involving setting unrealistic standards for others, and (3) socially prescribed perfectionism stemming from a perceived need to attain standards prescribed by significant others.

Using this conceptual framework, the gritty participants in the Lucas et al.’s (2015) study appeared to demonstrate self-oriented perfectionistic tendencies when persisting on tasks despite accruing monetary loss. Conversely, this pattern of gritty perseverance in the face of failure is more difficult to link with social dimensions of perfectionism since the laboratory task did not incorporate significant others. In theory, gritty individuals should be able to utilize their skills and knowledge by focusing on long-term success and not allowing themselves to become discouraged by minor setbacks and failures (Duckworth et al., 2007). Nevertheless, empirical findings leave open the possibility that grit may be associated with at least some aspects of perfectionism. Paralleling research findings on grit, studies by Hill, McIntire, and Bacharach (1997) and Stoeber, Otto, and Dalbert (2009) found personal-oriented perfectionism strongly correlated with conscientiousness. Given the controversial status of perfectionism and its component facets with regard to success, this study did not consider perfectionism as an adaptive trait, but one warranting further investigation.

The research reviewed indicates that grit is an adaptive personality characteristic that is strongly related to conscientiousness, predicts success in multiple domains, and is conceptually similar to other individual difference variables of success. The research also raises questions as to whether the persistent pursuit of long-term goals can have drawbacks for some individuals. Therefore, in Study 1, we tested whether there were adaptive and maladaptive aspects of grit by examining its association with proactive personality, PGI, competitiveness, and perfectionism. Accordingly, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Grit should be positively related to proactive personality, PGI, and competitiveness.

Method

Measures

Procedure

All participants completed an online questionnaire hosted on the Qualtrics® website and containing measures of grit, proactive personality, PGI, competitiveness, and perfectionism as well as demographic questions on gender, age, and ethnicity. After receiving a link to access the survey via e-mail, participants completed the measures unsupervised on their own time, and received course credit in exchange for their participation.

Approximately midway through the data collection process, researchers became aware that the response format for the MPS was incorrectly entered on the Qualtrics online survey. After correcting the problem, data collection resumed resulting in 132 usable MPS scores. However, the 117 unusable MPS scores were deleted from the data file. Accordingly, analyses were based on 249 cases except for analyses involving MPS subscales.

Results

To investigate the relationship between grit and its component subscales (grit-perseverance and grit-consistency) with proactive personality, PGI, competitiveness, and the subscales of perfectionism, we conducted a series of correlational analyses. As Table 1 indicates, grit was positively related to competitiveness (r = .23, p < .001), proactive personality (r = .41, p < .001), and PGI (r = .40, p < .001). While the grit-perseverance was positively correlated with self-oriented perfectionism (r = .29, p = .001) and other-oriented perfectionism (r = .19, p = .03) and showed a similar pattern of associations as grit, the grit-consistency subscale was not related to any of the other variables.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficients of the main variables for Study 1.

Scale	Mean	SD	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.
1. Grit	40.76	7.54	.81
2. Grit-perseverance	23.33	4.43	.76**	.81
3. Grit-consistency	17.44	5.10	.82**	.25**	.82
4. Proactive personality	22.27	4.67	.41**	.55**	.12	.84
5. Personal growth initiative	72.90	14.12	.40**	.56**	.13	.55**	.94
6. Competitiveness	44.94	12.13	.23**	.29**	.10	.22**	.16	.91
7. Perfectionism—self (n = 132)	71.37	15.55	.15	.29**	−.03	.37**	.24**	−.02	.95
8. Perfectionism—other (n = 132)	62.73	10.34	.14	.19*	.05	.12	.07	.15	.38**	.83
9. Perfectionism—social (n = 132)	58.01	11.73	−.12	−.03	−.15	−.01	−.02	−.28**	.40**	.34**	.79

Note: Cronbach’s alpha is shown along the diagonal in boldface. SD: standard deviation.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

To assess the unique variance accounted for in grit by the other variables, those variables that were significantly correlated with grit, proactive personality, PGI, and competitiveness were entered into a multiple regression using the standard method. A statistically significant model emerged: F(3, 245) = 25.15, p < . 0001. As Table 2 shows, proactive personality (β = .23, p = .001), PGI (β = .26, p < .001), and competitiveness (β = .17, p = .004) were significant predictors of grit and together accounted for 23% of the variance in grit (adjusted R² = .23).

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 2.

Multiple regression analysis predicting grit from proactive personality, personal growth initiative, and competitiveness in Study 1.

Variables	B	SE B	β	p
Proactive personality	.37	.11	.23	.001
Personal growth initiative	.14	.04	.26	<.001
Competitiveness	.10	.04	.17	.004

Note: SE: standard error.

In a separate analysis, all variables significantly correlated with the grit-perseverance, including proactive personality, PGI, competitiveness, self-oriented perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism, were entered as predictors into a multiple regression using the standard method. The analysis produced a statistically significant model, F(5, 126) = 29.07, p < .0001. The model explained 52% of the variance in perseverance (adjusted R² = .52) with proactive personality (β = .40, p < .001) and PGI (β = .35, p < .001) both positive significant predictors. Competitiveness, self-oriented perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism were not significant predictors of grit-perseverance. Since no predictors were significantly correlated with the grit-constancy, this precluded multiple regression analysis of this criterion variable.

Discussion

In general, the findings provide strong support for Hypothesis 1 that the composite grit scale is positively related to the adaptive individual difference variables proactive personality, PGI, and competitiveness. Consistent with the previous research (e.g., Duckworth et al., 2007), the pattern of results indicates a positive view of grit as a healthy and adaptive trait. Individuals with high levels of grit described themselves as taking a proactive approach to problems, enjoying competition, and actively working to improve themselves. As predicted, grit was associated with competitiveness, proactive personality, and PGI. Multiple regression results indicated that proactive personality, PGI, and competitiveness all accounted for unique variance in grit. Although these results highlight the bright aspect of grit, the findings regarding the perseverance subscale of grit also beg the question—Is there a dark aspect of grit in the pursuit of success?

The findings provided only partial support for Hypothesis 2 which predicted that grit and its subscales would be positively related to self-oriented perfectionism but not related to other facets perfectionism. While the grit-perseverance was positively related to self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism, the composite grit score was not associated with any dimension of perfectionism. These results indicate that individuals high in grit-perseverance tend to hold themselves and others to unrealistically high standards. These findings suggest a potential maladaptive or dark side to grit that may pose a psychological obstacle for gritty individuals and those who work with them.

Supplemental analyses indicated that grit-perseverance was positively related to both the adaptive individual difference variables and self- and other-oriented perfectionism. However, multiple regression findings indicated that only proactive personality and PGI were significant predictors of grit-perseverance. While the positive relationship between grit-perseverance and self-oriented perfectionism is consistent with experimental findings linking grit with costly persistence (Lucas et al., 2015), the positive relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and proactive personality and PGI adds to the controversy surrounding the adaptive or maladaptive nature of perfectionism and its implications for understanding grit.

Surprisingly, grit-consistency was not associated with any of the adaptive individual difference variables and was only weakly correlated with grit-perseverance. In light of recent research findings indicating that grit-perseverance and grit-consistency are related but independent constructs (Tyumeneva et al., 2019), this study raises some fundamental questions about the unitary nature of the grit construct. In addition, this study’s findings regarding positive associations between grit-perseverance and perfectionistic behavior patterns that represent unrealistic standards for one’s self and others support further exploration of the dark aspects of grit and its component facets in the pursuit of success.

Conceptual links between grit and “dark” traits of success

The concept of a Machiavellian personality is drawn from Niccolo Machiavelli’s books The Prince (1531/1985) and The Discourses (1531/2003) which argue that obtaining and maintaining political power requires the use of manipulative and amoral methods when dealing with others. More than four centuries later, Christie and Geis (1970) proposed that this approach to social situations represents a personality syndrome characterized by a cynical worldview, pragmatic ethics, and the use of duplicitous tactics. Individuals high in Machiavellianism (high Machs) reported having an unmitigated focus on achievement and a desire for winning at any cost (Ryckman, Thornton, & Butler, 1994). While this intense emphasis on achievement and winning may seem similar to the “passion” for goal achievement that forms the core concept of grit, Duckworth (2016) argued that purpose, defined as “the intention to contribute to the well-being of others” (p. 143), is a key component of gritty passion. This proposition that gritty people are concerned about others is consistent with empirical findings by Meriac et al. (2015) indicating that grit and its subscales were positively associated with measures of morality and ethical behavior. Given that high Machs reported engaging in antisocial behaviors including bullying (Sutton & Keogh, 2010), withholding information for economic gain (Sakalaki, Richardson, & Thépaut, 2007) and scholastic cheating in the form of plagiarism (Williams et al., 2010), grit, in many ways, appears antithetical to Machiavellianism. It should also be noted that Machiavellianism is associated with a range of negative personality characteristics such as narcissism and psychopathy forming the “Dark Triad” (O’Boyle et al., 2012), and spitefulness (Marcus et al., 2014).

Narcissism remains a complex and challenging psychological construct, as it is multidimensional and exists on a continuum from adaptive to pathological manifestations. Adaptive or normal narcissism involves striving for self-enhancement and success that does not present difficulties in well-being and relating (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010); however, pathological narcissism causes significant distress and impairment in the pursuit of unrealistic or unobtainable goals. Research on narcissism has evolved to include the heterogeneity of the construct, including grandiose and vulnerable subtypes. These two subtypes have separate nomological networks (J. D. Miller et al., 2011), with vulnerable narcissism represented by insecurity, inferiority, and a deflated sense of self-worth, and grandiose narcissism represented by self-aggrandizement, entitlement, arrogance and an inflated sense of self-worth (e.g., Caligor et al., 2015). However, both of these concepts, and therefore narcissism in general, are linked by excessive need for admiration from others, a dependency on external sources of self-definition (Caligor et al., 2015) and interpersonal antagonism (J. D. Miller et al., 2017). Those with narcissistic pathology lack the ability to accurately evaluate themselves, often leaving them dependent on a reality that is constructed to support their need for positive regard in all situations. Therefore, adaptive narcissism would have relationships with attributes that are considered positive and self-enhancing, while pathological narcissism in both forms would be associated with maladaptation, distress, and difficulties in self-regulation (Ackerman et al., 2011).

The personality construct hypercompetitiveness derives from research by Karen Horney (1937) who defined hypercompetitiveness as a dysfunctional form of extreme competitiveness linked to neurosis and representing an indiscriminate need to win at all costs. In contrast to “normal” competitiveness discussed in Study 1, hypercompetitiveness is associated with heightened self-worth fluctuating with underlying low self-esteem, high levels of neuroticism, decreased need for others, and interest in admiration and recognition from others (Ryckman et al., 1990, 1994). Despite the neurotic need to win, hypercompetitiveness generally does not predict success or academic performance (Bing, 1999). Accordingly, the short-term focus on winning at all cost may hinder the strategic pursuit of long-term goals and interfere with gritty responses to obstacles and setbacks. Hypercompetitiveness is also related to a broad spectrum of unhealthy behaviors and social interactions including eating disorder symptoms (Burckle et al., 1999) and problematic romantic relationships and relationships with peers and family (Thornton et al., 2011). In combination, these features make hypercompetitiveness a maladaptive trait.

Based on the above literature review, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3: As an adaptive trait, grit and its subscales should be negatively related to the maladaptive traits of Machiavellianism, hypercompetitiveness, vulnerable narcissism, and the narcissism subscales grandiose narcissism and exploitive narcissism.

Method

Measures

Procedure

Following the same procedure as Study 1, all participants in Study 2 completed an online questionnaire hosted on the Qualtrics® website and containing measures of grit, two measures of narcissism, hypercompetitiveness, and Machiavellianism as well as demographic questions on gender, age, and ethnicity. After receiving a link to access the survey, participants completed the measures unsupervised on their own time and received course credit in exchange for their participation.

Results

A series of correlational analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between grit, grit-perseverance, and grit-consistency and the maladaptive personality variables, Machiavellianism, hypercompetitiveness, vulnerable narcissism, leadership narcissism, grandiose narcissism, and exploitive narcissism. As Table 3 indicates, grit was negatively related to Machiavellianism (r = −.33, p < .001), vulnerable narcissism (r = −.35, p <.001), and E/E narcissism (r = −.14, p = .034) and positively related to L/A narcissism (r = .16, p = .015). The correlations between grit-perseverance and the maladaptive personality traits followed a similar pattern as grit with the exception of no correlation with E/E narcissism. Grit-consistency showed a somewhat different pattern of correlations and was negatively related to Machiavellianism (r = − .31, p < .001), vulnerable narcissism (r = −.34, p < .001), and hypercompetitiveness (r = −.19, p = .006).

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among scales in Study 2 (N = 222).

Scale	Mean	SD	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.
1. Grit	42.27	7.02	.81
2. Grit-perseverance	24.48	3.52	.78**	.73
3. Grit-consistency	18.63	4.21	.88**	.38**	.79
4. Hypercompetitiveness	68.64	13.71	−.12	.02	−.19**	.86
5. Machiavellianism	52.91	7.95	−.33**	−.23**	−.31**	.46**	.71
6. NPI L/A	5.51	2.79	.16*	.26**	.05	.47**	.24**	.76
7. NPI G/E	3.54	2.61	−.02	.10	−.11	.36**	.15*	.43**	.77
8. NPI E/E	0.86	0.96	−.14*	.12	−.13	.43**	.39**	.26**	.22**	.43
9. HSNS	28.77	6.14	−.35**	−.22**	−.34**	.37**	.32**	.01	.05	.32**	.72

Note: Cronbach’s alpha is shown along the diagonal in boldface. HSNS: Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale; NPI E/E = Narcissistic Personality Inventory exploitativeness/entitlement; NPI G/E = Narcissistic Personality Inventory grandiose/exhibitionism; NPI L/A: Narcissistic Personality Inventory leadership/authority; SD: standard deviation.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

To investigate the unique variance accounted for in grit by the other personality variables, those variables significantly related to grit, Machiavellianism, vulnerable narcissism, exploitative narcissism, and leadership narcissism were entered into a multiple regression using the standard method. Due to multicollinearity concerns, exploitative narcissism was excluded from the analysis. A significant model emerged: F(3, 215) = 22.29, p < . 001. As presented in Table 4, Machiavellianism (β = −.33, p < .001), vulnerable narcissism (β = −.24, p < .001), and L/A narcissism (β = .24, p < .001) were significant predictors of grit and together accounted for 24% of the variance in grit (adjusted R² = .23). Exploitive narcissism was not a significant predictor.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 4.

Multiple regression analysis predicting grit from Machiavellianism, hypersensitive narcissism, leadership/authority narcissism, and exploitative/entitlement narcissism in Study 2.

Variables	B	SE B	β	p
Machiavellianism	−.27	.06	−.32	<.001
HSNS	−.26	.07	−.24	<.001
NPI L/A	.57	.15	.24	<.001
NPI E/E	−.11	.46	−.02	.805

HSNS: Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale; NPI E/E = Narcissistic Personality Inventory exploitativeness/entitlement; NPI L/A: Narcissistic Personality Inventory leadership/authority; SE: standard error.

An additional analysis was conducted to assess the unique variance in grit-perseverance accounted for by the other personality variables. Using an inclusion criteria based on significant zero-order correlations with grit-perseverance, Machiavellianism, vulnerable narcissism, and L/A narcissism were entered into the multiple regression using the standard method. The analysis yielded a significant model: F(3, 215) = 15.35, p < . 0001. Machiavellianism (β = −.28, p < .001) and L/A narcissism (β = .32, p < .001) were significant predictors of grit-perseverance and together accounted for 17% of the variance in grit (adjusted R² = .17). Vulnerable narcissism was not a significant predictor.

Finally, to examine which personality variables accounted for unique variance in grit-consistency, the significant zero-order correlates of consistency, Machiavellianism, hypercompetitiveness, and vulnerable narcissism were entered as predictors into a multiple regression using the standard method. A significant model emerged: F(3, 215) = 14.76, p < .0001. Machiavellianism (β = −.24, p < .001) and vulnerable narcissism (β = −.27, p < .001) were significant predictors and together accounted for 16% of the variance in grit-consistency (adjusted R² = .16). Hypercompetitiveness was not a significant predictor.

Discussion

In this study, grit was negatively related to Machiavellianism, vulnerable narcissism, and E/E narcissism, which partially supports Hypothesis 3 that proposed that grit and its subscales are negatively related to maladaptive traits of success. It should be noted that the internal consistency of the E/E narcissism subscale is quite low (α = .43) which poses some psychometric concerns. Accordingly, caution should be exercised in interpreting results associated with this measure. However, contrary to Hypothesis 3, grit was not inversely related to hypercompetitiveness or maladaptive grandiose narcissism. These results spotlight the conceptual differences between grit and hypercompetitiveness and maladaptive grandiose narcissism and indicate that these personality traits do not play a significant role in gritty patterns of behavior.

The findings partially support Hypothesis 4 which predicted that grit and its subscales are positively related to the adaptive trait leadership narcissism. In light of the results of the multiple regression indicating that Machiavellianism and vulnerable narcissism were negative predictors and leadership narcissism was a positive predictor of grit, these findings provide further support for the conceptualization of grit as an adaptive trait that is associated with healthy levels of belief in one’s leadership capabilities.

Furthermore, analyses investigating the relationship between the component facets of grit and the other personality traits indicated a pattern of results that show distinct differences between grit-perseverance and grit-consistency. Although both of the grit subscales were negatively related to Machiavellianism and vulnerable narcissism, only grit-perseverance was positively related to L/A narcissism. In addition, only grit-consistency was negatively related to hypercompetitiveness. While multiple regression results found that Machiavellianism and L/A narcissism were the only significant predictors of grit-perseverance, vulnerable narcissism and Machiavellianism were the only significant predictors of grit-consistency. These findings underscore the related but distinct characteristics of the grit subscales and raise similar concerns as Study 1 about the unitary nature of the grit construct.