Understanding the development of school psychology services in the Republic of Taiwan

Abstract

School psychology is one of the most important fields within applied psychology, which is closely related to education and as a developing specialty it is important to be considered. Taiwan is an important Western ally and is highly developed in many ways. Taiwan is influenced by both Western and Eastern cultures, and this has inevitably impacted the development of psychology, including school psychology. Due to its complicated relations with Mainland China, most studies on school psychology in China do not include information in Taiwan. In addition, worldwide international studies of school psychology also often neglect Taiwan as a country. In other words, most reviews have not offered a systematic investigation of school psychology in Taiwan. The purpose of this article is to review the development of school psychology in Taiwan. The history and background of school psychology is discussed; the current status and developmental stages of school psychology are presented; the preparation of school psychologists, including the roles, functions, and responsibilities of school psychologists are discussed; and current issues impacting school psychology are examined. Overall, this article provides a means to briefly introduce and evaluate school psychology services in Taiwan.

Keywords

Applied psychology counselling service school psychology Taiwan teacher-counsellor

The history and background of school psychology in Taiwan

The Republic of China (Taiwan) is an island in East Asia, close to the south-eastern side of the People’s Republic of China (Mainland China). Taiwan is approximately 36,000 square kilometres, and has an estimated population of 23,188,000 people (National Statistics, 2011). Taiwan has been through two colonial periods, first when they were ruled by the Dutch (1622–1644) and later when they were ruled by Japan (from 1895 until the end of the Second World War in 1945). For four years, Taiwan was at war with Mainland China. After this war, both the People’s Republic of China (Mainland China) and Taiwan (named the Republic of China) claimed to represent China as well as the territory occupied by each other. In 1986, Jiang Jingguo, the president of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), paved the way for a process of liberalization, which was seen as a milestone to the modernization and educational development as well, as to the further development of democracy in Taiwan (Copper, 2000).

To some extent, the historical, geographical, and demographic characteristics significantly impact the community development, as well as the growth of school psychology in Taiwan (Bray & Kehle, 2011). The development of school psychology involving both the quality and quantity of psychological services provided to school-aged children are reflected by the region’s social, economic, and political milieu (see Oakland, 2011, personal communication). Obviously, wealthier countries are more likely to have better-developed school psychological services, and countries which are torn by war or poverty are more likely to not invest in children, youth, and families.

Governance, economy, and school system

As emphasized by Ding, Kuo, and Van Dyke (2008), the development of school psychology coincides with the growth of respective economies. As for Taiwan, during the post-war period in the 1980s, the Kuomintang government’s economic policies successfully turned Taiwan from a province-dominated economy to a free-market economy (Government Information Office, 2005). Moreover, it eventually developed into a modern, competitive, free market economy, which led to the rapid development of education and counselling (but not school psychology) (Jimerson, Oakland, & Farrell, 2007). Highly developed countries with well-established educational systems including the discipline of psychology can provide a better foundation for the development of school psychology including special education services for disabled individuals (Archwamety, McFarland, & Tangdhanakanond, 2009; Jimerson et al., 2007). Indeed, how countries deal with individuals with disabilities provides a great deal of information about the developmental level of the country.

In 1968, the government in Taiwan implemented a nine-year free compulsory educational school system (Yang, 2001). This meant that all students now had to attend school for nine years, and at the same time counselling and psychological services were provided to all schools (Barclay & Wu, 1986). Wise & Fagan (2000) has argued that the enforcement of compulsory schooling can be considered as the foundation for the emerging of quality school psychological services. This means that compulsory schooling, to some extent, can facilitate the improvement of the educational enterprise as well as the psychological and educational development of children, youth, teachers, and families (D’Amato, Zafiris, McConnell, & Dean, 2011). Along with the implementation of compulsory education, the establishment of professional organizations also played an essential role in the improvement of school psychology in Taiwan. According to Ding et al. (2008), in Taiwan, there are two important related organizations, the Chinese Guidance Association and the Chinese Psychological Association (renamed the Taiwanese Psychological Association in 2004). These organizations are responsible for providing standards for the practice of counselling and psychology in the schools. In sum, the growth of a free-market economy established by the Taiwan Government, the implementation of a nine-year compulsory education system, as well as the beginning of psychological organizations, all facilitated the development of counselling and school psychology in Taiwan.

The beginning of psychology in Taiwan

The development of modern psychology in Taiwan was influenced by the New Culture Movement in 1915 (Wen & Chen, 1990). This movement stressed the importance of the modernization and educational development of the country. After this movement, during the 1920s, a number of Chinese scholars trained in Western countries, and started to promote modern psychology in Taiwan. The importance of improving school psychological services also started to be recognized by the Kuomintang government, and also by the public, after a series of substantial social changes caused by economic and military threats. Accordingly, the government encouraged students to study abroad in developed countries, especially the United States (Barclay & Wu, 1986). School psychology in Taiwan has been substantially influenced by European and American (Western) systems. However, those psychologists and scholars trained in Western countries served as catalysts rather than the primary cause of the development and improvement of psychological service in Taiwan (Ding et al, 2008).

Psychology practice in Taiwan was influenced heavily by its local context (Nastasi & Varjas, 2011; Sinha, 1997). In fact, the unique native context forms the foundation for what was, and what is to become school psychology practice in Taiwan. It is important to note that practice in Taiwan cannot be understood without knowing the contextual base from which it has developed––as Nastasi and Varjas (2011) have emphasized, the critical influence of an in-depth understanding of the cultural context on the development of school psychology as well as its relevance to societal development. Leaders in Taiwan will hopefully follow the same pattern as is described. The local context, or in other words, the people and their beliefs, to a major extent, should shape the indigenous development of school psychology.

For almost 50 years, the Taiwan Indigenous Psychology Movement (TIPM) has impacted Taiwan psychology including school psychology. The TIPM began around the mid-1970s, spreading within the next ten years, and coming to fruition within the 1990s (Gabrenya, Kung, & Chen, 2006). This movement began by demanding that psychology must be built on local cultural patterns and people’s concerns, rather than simply copying the psychological services of the Western world, mainly from the United State. As Ding et al. (2008) advocated, there are ‘causal pathways linking culture, social economy, professional perspectives and political ideas to the practice of school psychology’ (p. 592). The TIPM can be considered not only as intellectual development, but also as a social and cultural process. This movement has influenced the development of school psychology in Taiwan, in that it led to an increasing number of psychologists and students emphasizing the difference between Western psychology and Taiwanese psychology, and considered the local cultural patterns and its impact on psychologists as its main foundation.

Differentiating psychology services from counselling services

A great deal of confusion exists between counselling services and psychological services offered in the schools. A common feature of school psychology in Taiwan, according to Ding et al. (2008), is that school psychologists are called ‘teacher counsellors’ or ‘counselling specialists’. Their work areas include school systems, and government agencies, as well as community mental health facilities. In addition, Wu (1993), also emphasized that school psychology in Taiwan has long been incorporated as a part of guidance and counselling services. That is, to some extent, a unique indigenous feature of Taiwanese school psychology which can be defined as a mix of school counselling and guidance (Ding et al., 2008). This same problem is seen in Mainland China (e.g., see D’Amato, van Schalkwyk, Zhao, & Hu, 2013). In a related vein, it is interesting that the Mainland, which has very different psychological services, has a similar difficulty differentiating psychology teachers from counselling teachers. This seems unique to certain parts of the world.

Previously, school psychological service providers in Taiwan were often called ‘teacher counsellors’ or ‘counselling specialists’, following what some see as a Western designation. Guidance and counselling services began to develop in Taiwan in the 1950s (Wu, 1993). Over these years of development and improvement, school psychology in Taiwan has been integrated within its local context and its indigenous cultural features. For instance, in Taiwan, intervention services, assessment, and different types of guidance such as individual and group counselling, could all be considered as the evolution and practice areas of both school psychological services and/or school counselling services (Ding et al., 2008). However, school psychology has never seemed to fully develop because of the previous focus on teacher counsellors. School psychology seems to be in its infancy at best. While universities and the government have continued to start university programs in school psychology they seem never to have become as popular as they have been in the West (Oakland and Cunningham 1992).

The current status and development of school psychology

The development of school psychology in Taiwan can be divided by landmark events, such as the beginning of special education, the formalization of psychological and counselling services, the establishment of training programs, and the extension of school psychology to relevant areas as needed (D’Amato et al., 2011; Ding et al., 2008; Wu, 1993).

Stage 1: The establishment of special education

Taipei Child Guidance Clinic and the National Taiwan University Hospital collaborated to focus on the diagnosis and treatment of maladjusted children in Tung-Men Primary School in 1960, which can be seen as a significant starting point for school psychological services in Taiwan (referred to as the Tung-Men Project; Hwang, 1972; Kuo, 1977). Serving children with special needs had rarely been seen in Asia, and this marked a departure from how children with handicaps were usually treated. In other countries, children and adults with special needs had been assigned to special schools or institutions which often focused on housing them in place of serving them. This significant moment established children with disabilities as worth educating.

Stage 2: Formalization of psychological and counselling services

Since the requirement for nine years of free public education, the National Taiwan Normal University as well as other institutions began to focus on offering applied psychological service classes to school specialists in the late 1960s (Wu, 1993). By the year 1983, counselling was included in most stages of the school experience from primary education to college (Barclay & Wu, 1986). Moreover, Taiwan began to develop the position of teacher-counsellor in the education system, and this covered counselling role, including both student and career issues, covering many of the needs within education. However, a significant problem was that school and educational psychologists were not trained, and some of the services they provided were not included in the current school service model. Another difficulty was that no single degree was offered in school or educational psychology. Thus, the service model was limited and school psychology was not a growing and emerging discipline in Taiwan (Oakland, 2011, personal correspondence).

Stage 3: The establishment of training procedures

Apart from the formalization of counselling service in the education system, Taiwan also paid attention to the training procedures of teacher-counsellors and school teachers. As mentioned by Ding et al. (2008), many local universities and colleges in Taiwan offered doctoral or masters degrees in teacher-counselling, counsellor education, and professional counselling. For example, the National Taiwan Normal University and the National Chang-Hwa Normal University offered non-doctoral training in teacher education and counselling in their departments, as well as a doctoral degree in professional counselling (Wu, 1993). Specialized certifications are currently required for all counsellors as well as psychologists to work in a school or special institution (Ding et al., 2008). Training programs in Taiwan also routinely offer teacher-counsellor certifications (Wu, 1993). Again, training in school psychology is extremely limited or not offered at all.

Stage 4: The extension of school psychology to the relevant areas

For better or for worse, in Taiwan, the profession of school psychology has been incorporated into school guidance and counselling programs. As explained by Ding et al. (2008), the historical onset of school psychological services also reflected a limited level of progress in terms of comprehensive mental health school service delivery. That is to say, school psychological services in Taiwan were not at the same level as provided by the traditional ‘Western service’ school psychology role (D’Amato et al., 2011). Indeed, in the schools, training in school psychology is very limited or missing at best. However, some see this as beginning to change, with some schools and universities working on developing the roles and functions of school psychologists (Oakland, 2011, personal correspondence). A wide range of services, such as personal, social, educational, and career guidance is often provided by guidance and counselling professionals outside the schools in Taiwan. In other words, some selected school psychology services are not limited to school-based programs but also have expanded to include community-based programs (Wu, 1993). Counselling services offer individuals coping strategies to overcome distress, in order to prevent maladaptive behaviours as well as to develop appropriate skills for individuals to have mentally healthy community lives (Wu, 1993; Rapp-Paglicci, Dulmus & Wodarski, 2004).

Understanding the infrastructure of school psychology services and training

Free compulsory education, has focused attention on counselling and guidance services (Ding et al., 2008). The advantage of this pattern is that clients view themselves as receiving mental health education rather than psychological treatment. To some extent, this pattern can encourage people to attend counselling rather than resist treatment due to cultural biases (Nastasi & Varjas, 2011). As previously stated, working with a psychologist can be seen as a negative cultural experience where one cannot save face. Saving face is a prominent part of most Asian countries and refers to an individual’s ability to maintain their dignity and self-concept by withdrawing from situations that could be humiliating. However, school psychology practice in Taiwan seems permanently intertwined with school counselling and teacher-counsellors. From this perspective, school psychology in Taiwan is diluted and is not its own specialty as it is in the West. To some extent, school psychology could be criticized in terms of whether the profession rests on an empirical foundation since it is part of counselling when various methodologies are applied to school services (D’Amato et al., 2011). In other words, the theoretical underpinnings of the school psychology profession are questionable (Graesser, 2009).

Evidence has shown that Taiwan has well-established formal training programs in professional counselling, as well as curricula for training undergraduate and graduate students in order to provide adequate school mental health services (Barclay & Wu, 1986; Wu, 1993). Given this situation in Taiwan, where school psychological services overlap with counselling and guidance services, the scope of school psychological services covers more than the traditional functions of school psychologists (Ding et al., 2008). Similar to Western school psychologists, school counsellors in Taiwan provide teaching, community outreach, group work, and resource-management, as well as the enhancement of skills and supportive counselling programs (Archwamety et al., 2009; Reupert & Maybery, 2007; Studer & Allton, 1996). In fact, teacher-counsellors in Taiwan also take on many of the roles that in other countries are covered by school counsellors, school psychologists, and school social workers (Bray & Kehle, 2011; Kuan, 1980). Teacher-counsellors fulfil multiple roles and coordinate with teachers and school personnel, and they are responsible for assessing whether the selected curricula fit both the overall educational goals and the individual student’s personal development (Alexander, 2009; Hsu & Hsu, 1980). In general, this role seems quite comprehensive.

Conclusion

As mentioned in the previous sections, the establishment of school psychology training programs has had a limited impact on the development of the profession in Taiwan. Ding et al. (2008) mentioned that there are fewer than 100 trained school psychologists in Taiwan. It seems that the overall cultural, growth of the economy, the focus on democracy, and the expansion of the educational system, all have influenced the development of counselling and the under-development of school psychology in Taiwan. However, recent worldwide societal issues, such as housing problems, stock market loss, and job layoffs have slowed the growth of general educational development in Taiwan, as well as in most other countries (Stiglitz, 2003). For the future development of school psychology, Hart (2007) has suggested that it is important for school psychologists and related personnel to respect the unique cultural characteristics of individuals. Moreover, school psychologists also need to take responsibility for facilitating the individual development of children, schools, and parents. While social changes and pressures have made child rearing and schooling extremely difficult at best, we must remain committed to supporting those in need in all counties around the World.

Footnotes

Author biographies

Yuanyuan Wang completed her BS in Human Psychology at Aston University, Birmingham, UK and her MS in Mental Health Studies at King’s College in London, UK. She is completing her PhD degree in Psychology at the University of Macau with Professor D’Amato. Her interests are in cross cultural and positive psychology. Address: Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Av. Padre Tomas Pereira, Taipa, Macao SAR. Email: lolitayuanyuan@gmail.com

Rik Carl D'Amato, PhD, is Director of the Center for Teaching and Learning Enhancement at the University of Macau. His research focuses on applied neuropsychology, cross cultural psychology and teaching and learning. Address: Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Av. Padre Tomas Pereira, Taipa, Macao SAR. Email: rdamato@umac.mo

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