Psychological counseling services in music schools in Poland: History and current status

The music education system in Poland

Children, adolescents, and young people with high levels of musical ability receive free music education in Poland, largely provided by the state. Given that less than 2% of children and young people study at music schools, however, such schools can only be described as selective and elite (Jankowski, 2002, 2012).

Currently, there are 690 music schools in Poland, which are under the pedagogical supervision of the Artistic Education Centre (CEA) in Warsaw, ³ appointed by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. ⁴ At the time of writing, a total of 78 270 children, adolescents, and young people from the ages of 6 to 25 years were studying at these schools, which employed 16,595 teachers of artistic and nonartistic (i.e., general) subjects. Polish music education is delivered in both 601 state music schools, which do not teach general subjects, and 89 general education music schools, which do. The state music schools only provide music education, but students at general education music schools follow both general and music education programs and take the same external examinations in general subjects as students at mainstream public schools. First-degree music schools are the equivalent of primary schools open to all children, and second-degree music schools are the equivalent of public secondary schools. ⁵ Children at first-degree music schools learn to play a single musical instrument in the context of classical music. Young people at second-degree music schools can choose to train as classical or jazz instrumentalists or vocalists or specialize in lutherie or rhythmics. ⁶ The teaching of theoretical and musical subjects (e.g., ear training, rhythmics, music theory, music listening and appreciation, musical forms, harmony) and vocal and/or instrumental group activities (e.g., chamber ensembles, orchestras, choirs) are invaluable components of music education at every stage. Music schools are an integral part of arts education in Poland, which is also provided in art schools (83) and ballet schools (20). ⁷

There have been music schools in Poland for more than 200 years, but the current system of music education was established after World War II. It has evolved and undergone a number of reforms, but its main focus remains the education of students to a professional level and the provision of opportunities for students to become musicians (Jankowski, 2002; Konaszkiewicz, 2008). Music school graduates have acquired the knowledge, skills, and competencies required to embark on university- or conservatoire-level training in music. In such institutions, students can follow large programs, which are often innovative, offering the possibility of specializing in aspects of music determined by societal needs such as those of the labor market (Jankowska & Jankowski, 2016). ⁸

In summarizing the structure of the music education system in Poland, it is worth noting that children who start learning to play an instrument when they are 6 or 7 years old may spend 17–18 years in training. Music education has a significant impact on people’s lives because of the changes it brings about not only in their musical ability and competence to perform but also in aspects of their psychology (e.g., personality traits: Gjermunds et al., 2020; Kemp, 2009; Sękowski, 1989) and neurobiology (e.g., brain structures, as revealed by research using neuro-imaging techniques: Olszewska et al., 2021; Schlaug, 2006, 2009), which differentiate student and professional musicians from nonmusicians.

Above all, Polish music schools emphasize the importance of supporting students’ development as musicians (Millati, 1973; Nogaj, 2017). At the same time, they require students to demonstrate exceptional commitment, dedication, and both mental and physical effort. They need, therefore, to be able to help students cope with the difficulties they often experience during the course of their training. Such difficulties are mostly likely to arise from misunderstandings and conflicts between students and teacher-artists (Bissinger-Ćwierz & Nogaj, 2023; Pecen et al., 2018), and in these cases, psychologists can offer invaluable support (Nogaj, 2014).

The history of psychological counseling provision in music schools

According to Barbara Rosemann, in a statement that has not lost its relevance, “the main social function of a psychologist employed in music education is . . . helping to optimise the teaching and upbringing of future professional musicians, while taking care of the mental health of the students of these schools” (Rosemann, 1991, p. 417). When the psychological counseling service was first introduced in Polish music schools, psychologists were mainly expected to develop methods for selecting students on the basis of objective measurements of their musical abilities (Kępińska-Welbel, 1991). To this end, a team was formed at the Central Pedagogical Centre of Artistic Education (COPSA) to study musical abilities and establish both a theoretical and methodological basis for selection and recruitment to music schools (Manturzewska et al., 2010). ⁹ Alarmed by the high proportion of students who dropped out in the later years of their training, the team also explored the difficulties they experienced at music schools (Manturzewska, 1974). Those difficulties reported most often related to 1) both general and musical ability; one or other might be deficient or develop at a different rate; 2) the personality and temperamental functioning of the student; 3) emotional and motivational issues, often associated with problems coping with stress; and 4) stages of psychological development, for example, when students found it hard to deal with conflicts in their family, at school, or out of school (Lachowicz, 1977; Rosemann, 1991; Statkiewicz, 1977).

As psychologists began their work in music schools in the 1960s and 1970s, Manturzewska (1974) carried out pioneering research on the psychological determinants of musical achievement, providing a detailed list of the psychological characteristics of gifted young musicians at music schools. The research showed that, in comparison with general education school students, young people attending music school were socially and emotionally immature, struggled to cope with stress in difficult situations, and scored high on measures of neuroticism and egocentric attitudes. They also scored high, however, on measures of general intelligence, motivation, and concentration on musical tasks. Manturzewska’s findings were not all confirmed by subsequent research on selected groups of music school students, however; for example, there was no evidence that they are highly neurotic (Chruszczewski, 2009; Gjermunds et al., 2020; Sękowski, 1989). Nevertheless, there seems to be a consensus among researchers that the achievements of music school students are determined not only by their musical abilities but also by a range of psychological factors and their social environment.

The network of psychological counseling services for music school students, which had been growing and developing in several Polish cities during the 1960s and 1970s, began to disintegrate in the 1980s (Manturzewska et al., 2010). This was mainly because of personnel changes at COPSA, often as the direct result of transformations in the political system (Manturzewska, 1999). In the absence of effective, formal supervision from COPSA, music school psychologists found it hard to continue counseling, training, and conducting and publishing research with the same intensity and at the same level. Accordingly, the Institute of Music Pedagogy and Interdepartmental Department of Music Psychology (the latter chaired by Manturzewska) at the Frederick Chopin Music Academy began to provide informal support (Jankowska & Jankowski, 2016) by organizing psychological and pedagogical conferences and seminars for the Polish music community and delivering postgraduate studies in music psychology for school psychologists and music teachers (Manturzewska, 1991).

In the 1990s, general education music schools were subject to the same constraints as mainstream public schools. Within the groups of specialists ¹⁰ attached to schools, the employment of school pedagogists was prioritized, and school psychologists were employed only at the whim of head teachers, rather than being seen as a necessity for music students. Such students—and those engaging in other forms of artistic training—continued to experience not only difficulties associated with their general education but also, and perhaps even more importantly, those associated with their artistic development (Konkol, 1999; Sierszeńska-Leraczyk, 2014).

As more and more students were found to be making use of school psychologists, it became necessary to list the issues specific to music students, and thus, the psychologists working in music schools. Kępińska-Welbel (1991) proposed a taxonomy of difficulties arising from the demands of musical training, pointing to problems related to building musical identity; issues resulting strictly from students’ skills and technique; the cognitive demands of playing an instrument; and socio-emotional problems. In the past three decades, it has become increasingly clear that many children and young people at music schools experience a range of developmental difficulties often requiring specialist support (Nogaj-Gluska, 2010). The widespread employment of school psychologists and school pedagogists in both mainstream public schools and music schools coincided with the introduction of regulations for the provision of professional psychological and pedagogical assistance, based on the principles of inclusive education (Jas & Jarosińska, 2010).

Tasks of school psychologists and pedagogies in music schools

The responsibilities of school psychologists and pedagogists currently include both the organization of psychological and pedagogical help for students, and educational and preventive activities (Katra & Sokołowska, 2010). These are specified as follows: ¹¹

Each of these tasks is carried out successfully in music schools and other art schools for gifted children and young people (Nogaj, 2019). As noted in a report on the condition of first-degree music education in Poland (Jankowski, 2012) students at music schools may experience not only the issues listed by Kępińska-Welbel (1991) and Nogaj-Gluska (2010), for example, but also the same range of difficulties and disorders occurring among students at mainstream public schools. These include various forms of disability (e.g., amblyopia) and developmental (e.g., autism spectrum) disorders; disorders resulting from social maladjustment, including behavioral and emotional disorders; chronic diseases; language and communication difficulties; adaptation difficulties; learning difficulties such as dyslexia; school failure; and experiences of crisis or traumatic situations.

While the scope of problems dealt with by psychologists in music schools over the past six decades has changed significantly in terms of some areas of their activity, it has remained similar in terms of others. The earliest music school psychologists focused on supporting musically gifted students to achieve high levels of artistic competence (Manturzewska, 1977; Statkiewicz, 1977). Nowadays, they mainly focus on supporting musically gifted students who are experiencing developmental or emotional difficulties (Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2017). One area of their activity that has not changed, however, is helping students in dealing with emotions associated with public performance, such as music performance anxiety. Over the decades, this has remained the most common reason for music school students to seek the support of a psychologist with specific expertise in working with musicians (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2022; Kępińska-Welbel, 1999; Lachowicz, 1977; Statkiewicz, 1977).

Problems specific to music school students and professional musicians

Practicing psychologists group the problems reported by music school students and professional musicians into three main categories: 1) related to musical activity, 2) related to social functioning, and 3) resulting from psychological difficulties and developmental dysfunctions (Chełkowska-Zacharewicz, 2020; Kępińska-Welbel, 1999; Manturzewska, 1974; Nogaj-Gluska, 2010; Rosemann, 1991; Sękowski, 1989; Statkiewicz, 1977). These categories are interlinked in such a way that it is often impossible to determine the strength and direction of the interactions between them.

The experience of paralyzing music performance anxiety can significantly reduce a musician’s well-being and even lead to symptoms of depression (Vaag et al., 2016; Voltmer et al., 2012). Unfavorable personal experiences may negatively affect performance quality or lower the performer’s level of artistic achievement (Hallam, 2008; Manturzewska, 1974; Sękowski, 1989). Developmental (e.g., autism spectrum) disorders can affect students’ social relationships at school and ability to cope with performing in public (Ludkiewicz, 2022). Individuals at risk of study addiction may demonstrate maladaptive perseverance (Czerwiński et al., 2022), yet there is evidence that all apparent difficulties in life can also strengthen the individual’s involvement in musical activity and contribute to their reaching a higher level of musical achievement than might have been expected (cf. Galatopoulos, 2002; Kivijärvi, 2012).

Similar problems are reported not only in the Polish literature but worldwide and more often in relation to university students and professional musicians than music school students. In addition to music performance anxiety (e.g., Biasutti & Concina, 2014; Guyon et al., 2020; Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2020; Matei & Ginsborg, 2017; Osborne et al., 2007), these include issues specific to musicians with impaired sight (e.g., Park, 2017) and hearing (e.g., Fulford et al., 2011).

The rhetoric of classification is becoming increasingly noticeable in psychological diagnostics and counseling, but labeling a problem does not necessarily help to solve it. Rather, it is necessary to take the broad context in which an individual is experiencing difficulties, and their general functioning, into account (Fraser, 2022). Thus, it is often difficult to classify the problems reported by music school students seeking psychological assistance, because the stories they tell are unique to them (e.g., Matei & Ginsborg, 2023). In practice, this is less important than providing effective help. The priority for Polish psychological counseling services in music schools is to encourage students to seek specialist (psychological and pedagogical) support where necessary, and the increasing tendency for them to do so is welcome (Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2017; Lachowicz, 1977).

In the context of psychological counseling in music schools, it is especially beneficial for psychologists to be aware of the difficulties specific to musicians, besides those related to students’ general functioning, and the issues that are typically associated with music education, so that they can understand the challenges faced by students in meeting its requirements. They should also be familiar with the laws regulating the organization of specialist psychological and pedagogical assistance for students gifted in one or more of the arts who require additional support (Nogaj, 2014), but it is crucial that school psychologists and pedagogists at music schools should recognize the difficulties typically experienced by musically gifted young people.

To reiterate, music school students may also experience developmental, health, and socio-emotional difficulties that are not related to their musical abilities or training. For the purposes of organizing optimal psychological help, whether at music or mainstream public schools, it is obligatory to verify annually whether specialist support is required by artistically gifted students. According to the relevant regulation ¹² the difficulties to be considered first are those experienced by students: ¹³

Each of these difficulties may be confirmed by an additional formal opinion issued by a state psychological and pedagogical counseling center. When a student is diagnosed with a disability, social maladjustment, or threat of social maladjustment, they may apply to such a center for a statement of need for special education (Jas & Jarosińska, 2010). Once the statement has been obtained, the school psychologist and/or school pedagogist, and all the student’s teachers, have 30 days to prepare to make educational adjustments to the individual needs and abilities of the student in accordance with the recommendations outlined in the opinion. Teachers of artistic subjects are not exempt from this obligation (Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2013a). In the vast majority of music, art, and ballet schools, the psychologist or pedagogist is usually responsible for organizing the psychological and pedagogical assistance provided to the student. Such assistance, according to Ministry of Education and Science guidelines, involves all the actions taken by everyone responsible for the student’s education and functioning at school rather than only those actions taken by a psychologist or school pedagogist. Moreover, school psychologists, pedagogists, and teachers of music, art, and ballet are obliged to take into account the student’s level of ability and the specific demands of their training when they provide assistance (Matusiak & Nogaj, 2013).

Given the problems of musically gifted students, and the increasing numbers of diagnoses indicating disorders, deficits, and developmental difficulties (Nogaj-Gluska, 2012; Sierszeńska-Leraczyk, 2014), the CEA began in 2008 to reactivate a network of Specialist Psychological and Pedagogical Counseling Centers (SPPP CEA) in Poland to support specialists, teachers, students, and their parents.

The role and tasks of the SPPP CEA

There are currently eight SPPP CEA providing support for arts education across the whole country. ¹⁴ The role of the specialists employed by the SPPP CEA is to meet several key goals (Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2013b) of which the most important is to organize and monitor the provision of psychological and pedagogical counseling in music, art, and ballet schools, ensuring its quality and that of the educational and preventive activities coordinated by school specialists (psychologists and pedagogists) for the benefit of the students. The psychologists and pedagogists employed in each of the centers are all expected to provide teachers, students, and parents with psychological and pedagogical help themselves, not only by offering ongoing support, but also by diagnosing difficulties, issuing opinions on an individual and group basis, and delivering thematic training in accordance with the needs of students and teachers in the schools in each of the provinces for which they are responsible. They understand the nature of arts education and the specific demands it makes on students because they are either university graduates in at least two disciplines (psychological and/or pedagogical and artistic) or have many years of relevant experience (e.g., as a psychologist or pedagogist in a music, art, or ballet school).

One of the key tasks of the SPPP CEA specialists is to support schools, and in particular school psychologists and pedagogists, in adapting the requirements of general education to artistically gifted students (Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2013b). This is necessary because staff at public psychological and pedagogical counseling centers often provide opinions including recommendations that do not take into account the needs of students at arts schools (Nogaj, 2019).

SPPP CEA specialists have carried out research projects involving the monitoring of students’ psychological well-being, so as to be able to plan, recommend, and implement adequate preventive measures in all schools (Nogaj & Bissinger-Ćwierz, 2021). The pandemic provided the opportunity for SPPP CEA specialists to offer online workshops for students, their parents, and teachers (Nogaj, 2021), and they occasionally take on the role of mediator to help resolve conflicts in schools.

For the first time in the history of the CEA, then, a team of people ¹⁵ responsible for psychological and pedagogical assistance now coordinates and supervises all activities of a psychological nature, including psychological and pedagogical counseling for students at music, art, and ballet schools, their parents, and those who teach them. It is to be hoped that the team will continue to remain stable and flourish over time, despite inevitable socio-political changes.

Summary

The psychologists and pedagogists currently working at the CEA are convinced that they continue to fulfill the mission of Manturzewska and her contemporaries. Today’s network of centrally supervised specialist counseling centers designed to protect the well-being of all gifted students at music, art, and ballet schools derives from the introduction of counseling in music schools more than 70 years ago. The publications of the pioneers of psychology in music schools (Lachowicz, 1977; Manturzewska, 1974; Rosemann, 1991; Statkiewicz, 1977) still serve as a reference point for new research projects.

The world underwent a huge transformation at the turn of the century. Students at music, art, and ballet schools have experienced cultural change and are, more than ever, exposed to threats resulting from contemporary social, political, and economic turbulence. Yet, for students at music schools, the experience of performing music can give them a sense of intergenerational continuity and the desire to strive for stability by cultivating their knowledge of the works of composers of different eras. It is up to school specialists, teachers, and families to understand the needs of such students so that they can support their well-being and help them develop and ultimately realize their full potential.

In conclusion, I hope that this article will inspire future researchers to undertake systematic studies of psychologists and pedagogists providing assistance to musically gifted students in Poland, how they diagnose them, how they work with them, and how they are perceived.