Coping with bullying: What answers does children’s literature provide?

Abstract

Bibliotherapy is a therapeutic tool for helping children deal with stressful events. Bullying and peer victimization is commonly experienced by children and has been associated with psychosocial maladjustment. However, research suggests that particular coping strategies may be more or less effective. As stories are one avenue through which children learn about and explore possible coping strategies, this study examined 73 storybooks aimed at children ages 4–11 for bullying type (verbal, physical, and relational), settings in which the bullying occurred and coping strategies used by fictional victims. Assessed coping strategies included nine categories and 26 specific strategies. Results indicated that the most commonly used coping strategy categories included both adaptive (prosocial response, advice seeking, distancing) and maladaptive (revenge-seeking) categories. The most frequently promoted coping strategies were bystander-intervention (16%), befriend-the-bully (15%), trick-the-bully (11%), scare-the bully-(10%), and verbal-confrontation (10%). Differences in the strategies presented across reading level of the books were also found. Results are discussed in light of current research on coping and bullying, and implications for clinicians and school staff conducting bibliotherapy to address bullying.

Keywords

Bibliotherapy bullying children’s literature coping peer victimization

Bullying behavior is a pervasive problem experienced internationally by children and adolescents (Andreou & Bonoti, 2010; Boulton, Smith, & Cowie, 2010; Chen & Astor, 2009; Cheng, Chen, Ho, & Cheng, 2011; Larochette, Murphy, & Craig, 2010; Shin, 2010; Von Marées & Petermann, 2010; Wei & Chen, 2012; Wei & Jonson-Reid, 2011). Bullying is defined as a specific type of aggression in which behavior towards others is intended to harm, occurs repeatedly over time and involves an imbalance of power in which the person with power attacks the less powerful victim (Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Ruan, Simons-Morton, & Scheidt, 2001). The aggressive behavior can take various expressions including physical (e.g. pushing, kicking), verbal (e.g. name calling, threatening), and relational forms (e.g. purposely excluding, gossiping). Experiences of bullying start as early as preschool, increase throughout elementary school and peak in middle school (Chen & Astor, 2009; Pellegrini & Bartini, 2000). Some consider bullying to be the most prevalent form of youth violence (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). Although rates of involvement in bullying vary between cultures, in a survey of 66 countries, it was found that on average 31.2% of adolescents surveyed had experienced peer victimization within the past 2 months, with rates as high as 60% in some countries (Due & Holstein, 2008).

High rates of bullying, and recognition of different levels of involvement (e.g. bully, victim, bully-victim, or bystander) in conjunction with highly publicized events such as suicides and school shootings has drawn attention from researchers over the past decade (Nansel et al., 2001). Not surprisingly, associations between peer victimization and children’s maladjustment are well-documented. Research has substantiated links between peer victimization and decreased academic performance, poor social adjustment, poor social skills, depression, loneliness, aggression, health problems and somatic complaints, anxiety, and low self-esteem (Boulton et al., 2010; Cook, Williams, Guerra, Kim, & Sadek, 2010; Egan & Todorov, 2009; Grills & Ollendick, 2002; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Juvonen, Nishina, & Graham, 2000; Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996; Nansel et al., 2001). Moreover, international research has established the connection between peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment cross-culturally (Due et al., 2005).

Victims of bullying engage in a wide variety of coping strategies (Scambler, Harris, & Milich, 1998). However, research suggests that coping strategies vary in effectiveness at reducing future victimization and are differentially related to adjustment (Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004; Reijntjes, Stegge, Terwogt, Kamphuis, & Telch, 2006). Stories are one avenue through which children learn about and explore possible coping strategies. Yet the content of children’s literature regarding coping strategies for peer victimization and its potential for therapeutic use is unknown. The current study aimed to provide this information through an examination of the coping strategies present within children’s literature on bullying in the United States of America (USA). More specifically, this study provides a descriptive comparison of the attempted but unsuccessful coping strategies as well as the strategies portrayed as leading to the resolution of bullying.

Coping

Bullying and peer victimization constitute significant stressors for children, thus bullying can be understood within the stress-and-coping framework (Sandstrom, 2004; Sontag & Graber, 2010). Coping has been defined as purposeful cognitive and behavioral efforts undertaken to manage internal and external demands of a stressor with the goal of stress resolution or alleviation of emotional reactions (Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen, & Wadsworth, 2001). Coping as dichotomous dimensions (e.g. approach versus avoidant coping, problem-focused versus emotion-focused coping, and engagement versus disengagement coping) was widely used in research in the past (Compas et al., 2001; Hunter, Boyle, & Warden, 2004; Sontag & Graber, 2010). However, this view of coping has been criticized as being overly simplistic in capturing the range of coping strategies used by youth (e.g. Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, 2003). Victims of bullying employ various coping strategies such as verbal confrontation, revenge-seeking behavior, solicitation of advice and support from adults or friends, conflict resolution, avoidance, distraction, humorous response, rumination, and ignoring (Elledge et al., 2010; Hampel, Manhal, & Hayer, 2009; Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004).

Given that not all children involved in peer victimization experience maladjustment, researchers have investigated ways in which children cope with bullying to explain these individual differences in vulnerability to stress and the efficacy of coping responses (e.g. Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004; Sandstrom, 2004; Smith, Shu, & Madsen, 2001; Visconti & Troop-Gordon, 2010). This research suggests that certain types of coping strategies, including advice/support seeking, humorous responses, problem solving, and conflict resolution/assertiveness, may be more or less effective at reducing future victimization and uniquely related to socioemotional adjustment.

In a study on youth’s perceptions of coping with peer aggression, 78% of youth endorsed ‘telling someone’ as the best strategy to make themselves feel better (Hunter et al., 2004). Other studies have confirmed that seeking support is related to positive social adjustment, fewer internalizing problems, and decreased victimization (Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004; Visconti & Troop-Gordon, 2010). Problem-solving and constructive active responses (e.g. conflict resolution) are also more likely to have a de-escalating effect on future bullying exchanges compared to retaliatory or aggressive responses (Mahady, Wilton, & Craig, 2000). Although active coping strategies (e.g. assertiveness and problem solving) are found to be most effective, they are enacted infrequently by victims, indicating that victimized children are not very likely to use effective coping strategies for bullying, though engagement in problem-solving seems to increase throughout adolescence (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007).

Coping strategies that are generally considered to be ineffective include retaliation, ignoring, rumination, distancing, and other forms of passive and reactive coping. These strategies have been found to perpetuate peer victimization, lead to an increase in externalizing and internalizing behavior, and are associated with lower levels of social adjustment (e.g. Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004; Sandstrom, 2004). However, ignoring, distancing, and enduring behaviors are the most commonly reported coping strategies for dealing with bullying and are endorsed by youth and perceived as effective (Cowie, 2000; Naylor, Cowie, & del Rey, 2001; Scambler et al., 1998). In addition, rumination has been shown to lead to increased levels of loneliness and internalizing symptoms (Sandstrom, 2004). Furthermore, passive types of coping may serve to reinforce the bullying through a demonstration of submission, an indication of unlikely retaliation, and acquiescence to allow bullies to achieve their objectives (Mahady et al., 2000).

Reactive coping strategies such as crying, verbally venting about the situation, aggressive behavior, or revenge are also common responses to victimization (Mahady et al., 2000). Children who engage in these coping strategies are less likely to attempt more adaptive forms of coping such as seeking support (Elledge et al., 2010). Further, research demonstrates that engagement in retaliatory behavior predicted declines in youth’s social adjustment and prosocial behavior, and increases in levels of aggression, internalizing problems, and withdrawal (Visconti & Troop-Gordon, 2010). Clearly, current research has moved beyond a dichotomous dimensional approach to examine a wide array of individual strategies. In consideration of these findings, the current study aimed to examine a greater diversity of coping strategies in order to more fully capture coping strategies in children’s literature on bullying.

Bibliotherapy

Through bibliotherapy, or the use of literature for the purposes of emotional healing and growth (Heath, Sheen, Leavy, Young, & Money, 2005), children may learn about coping strategies through stories of other children’s struggles. Indeed, the history of bibliotherapy shows its use to provide instruction or knowledge, and to help the reader problem-solve and understand themselves and situations, among other potential uses (Jack & Ronan, 2008). Many children’s books address the topic of bullying, but it is unclear what they illustrate to children. It is important to understand the reading material available to practitioners and the possible stories children have been exposed to in children’s literature.

Bibliotherapy can be used in both educational and clinical settings with a distinction identified between developmental and clinical bibliotherapy. Clinical bibliotherapy is used by mental health professionals and intended for a clinical population, or those with emotional and behavioral problems (Rubin, 1978). Psychologists and school social workers or counselors might use bibliotherapy as an adjunct in the treatment of emotional or behavioral problems (e.g. Webb, 2011). Developmental bibliotherapy is used by educators, librarians, or other lay helpers in order to facilitate healthy development (Rubin, 1978) and address such topics as diversity and multicultural issues, problem solving skills, friendship and social skills, and bullying and victimization (see Heath et al., 2005). Empirical research on the effectiveness of bibliotherapy with children and adolescents has increased over the past few decades and generally indicates positive effects (Heath et al., 2005; Jack & Ronan, 2008).

Bibliotherapy is also categorized between cognitive bibliotherapy, which consists mainly of manualized self-help treatment books, and affective bibliotherapy, which uses fictional literature within a broader treatment (Shechtman, 2006). Cognitive bibliotherapy has been found to be effective for decreasing depressive symptoms (Ackerson, Scogin, McKendree-Smith, & Lyman, 1998), anxiety (Febbraro, 2005; Rapee, Abbott, & Lyneham, 2006; Reeves & Stace, 2005) and improving parenting skills (Hahlweg, Heinrichs, Kuschel, & Feldmann, 2008). Though less studied, affective bibliotherapy has also been found to be effective in reducing aggressive behavior (Shechtman, 2006).

In these various forms, bibliotherapy has been promoted and used regularly by clinicians, educators, and librarians, particularly throughout the past century (Jack & Ronan, 2008). As a recent example, Adams and Pitre (2000) surveyed therapists from northern Ontario, Canada, and found that 68% of therapists used bibliotherapy with their clients. Reported reasons for recommending books included: Encouraging self-help and independence, enhancing therapy, and responding to client requests. Likewise, Pehrsson and McMillen (2010) surveyed members of the American Counseling Association and found that 79% participants use bibliotherapy, with 47% of participants reporting bibliotherapy use with at least 20% of their clients ages 2- to 7-years-old, and 43% reporting bibliotherapy use with at least 20% of their clients ages 8- to 12-years-old.

Although empirical research on the content of children’s literature is limited, several studies analysing children’s literature have been conducted on topics such as stuttering (Logan, Mullins, & Jones, 2008), dyslexia (Altieri, 2008), coping with parental mental illness (Tussing & Valentine, 2001), and coping with death and dying (DeLisle & Woods, 1977) to determine whether they represented helpful models of coping. Of particular relevance to the current study, Oliver, Young, and LaSalle (1994) reviewed and analysed coping and problem solving responses promoted in 22 fictional stories on bullying. Results indicated that 32% of the books surveyed promoted revenge tactics as the solution to bullying. Although additional coping responses were identified and listed, they were not analysed according to frequency. Since this study, numerous storybooks depicting bullying and coping responses have been published.

In consideration of recent developments in the coping-with-bullying literature and new children’s literature, the present study aimed (1) to examine the coping strategies provided by current children’s literature on bullying in the USA, including those that were attempted but unsuccessful and those that led to the resolution of the bullying, and (2) to examine potential differences in the coping strategies presented and promoted based on reading level of the books.

Method

A search was conducted of picture books on bullying targeted at children ages 4- to 11-years-olds and published between 1985–2010. A total of 139 books were identified by reviewing websites promoting bullying prevention and by searching online bookstores and children’s catalogues from 11 libraries within the greater Chicago area under the term ‘bully’. The present study, limited by accessibility and availability of the literature, incorporated a total of 125 books into the initial review. Books that were included illustrated clear coping responses to bullying scenarios, were not chapter-books and included a storyline. Based on these criteria, a total of 52 books from the initial review were excluded from the study. The final analysis consisted of 73 children’s books (see Appendix A in supplemental materials for a full listing).

The selected books were initially analysed utilizing Kochenderfer-Ladd’s (2004) categorization of coping responses to bullying, which included four categories: Revenge seeking; cognitive distancing; advice seeking; and conflict resolution. Preliminary analyses of the storybooks revealed that the scope of coping strategies illustrated in the literature was more expansive. Thus, the present study expanded the categorization system to include nine categories with a total of 26 coping strategies. The categories consisted of revenge seeking (e.g. trick the bully, scare the bully), distancing (e.g. ignore the bully, physical escape), acceptance (e.g. passive acceptance, active acceptance), advice seeking (e.g. tell an adult, seek peer support), prosocial response (e.g. befriend the bully, compromising), skill development (e.g. confidence building, perspective taking), emotional expression (e.g. cry, yell), rumination (e.g. worry, wishful thinking), and bystander intervention.

A coding manual was developed to provide definitions and examples of each coping strategy. In addition to the nine categories of coping responses, information about each book was collected, including type of book (standard story book or educational storybook) and target age. Stories were analysed to examine descriptive characteristics of each bullying scenario depicted, including the setting in which bullying took place, the type of bullying depicted, and all coping responses engaged in by the main character or characters. The outcome of the bullying scenario was also noted. The final coping strategy was recorded as the coping strategy promoted by the book. Outcome of the promoted coping strategy was also recorded and was categorized as either attempted but unsuccessful, or as coping responses that led to the resolution of the bullying.

Books were randomly assigned and coded by nine graduate research assistants. Accuracy of the coding for each book was checked by three master-coders, and discrepancies were resolved through consensus of the master-coding team. Inter-rater agreement between the research assistants and master coders was adequate (κ = 0.74).

Results

Of the total number of children’s books, 88% (N = 64) were standard storybooks and 12% (N = 9) were educational (i.e. containing material in addition to the story). Regarding the setting of bullying scenarios, 32% (N = 23) of the books depicted bullying in neighborhood or community settings, 27% (N = 20) in unstructured school settings (e.g. playground, hallway), 12% (N = 9) at home, 4% (N = 3) in structured school settings (i.e. where an adult was present), and 25% (N = 18) in multiple locations.

Types of bullying represented in the stories were recorded, including verbal, physical, relational, or a combination (e.g. verbal and physical, physical and relational). Of the total number of books, 43% (N = 31) depicted verbal bullying, 33% (N = 24) verbal and physical bullying, 10% (N = 7) physical, 6% verbal and relational, 4% relational, 3% physical and verbal, and 3% verbal, physical, and relational.

Descriptive statistics of the presented and promoted coping strategies are presented as Table 1 in the Supplemental Materials, including details regarding the percentage of books presented in each category and individual coping strategy based on the 73 total books examined in this study. Table 1 also presents the quantity and percentages of the promoted coping responses by categories and individual strategies based on the 73 total books included in the present study.

The final outcome of each storybook was recorded as the end result of the final coping strategy. The final outcome could be positive (preventing bullying from occurring in a prosocial way), negative (having detrimental effects on the bully, victim, or another person), or neutral. Of the total number of books, 67% (N = 49) had a positive final outcome, 25% (N = 18) had a negative final outcome, and 8% (N = 6) had a neutral outcome.

There was a significant Age x Promoted Coping Strategy chi-square analysis χ²(73) = 50.32, p < 0.001, with more books (17 of 18) for the K-Grade 3 reading level group promoting revenge seeking strategies. Revenge seeking strategies constituted 17 of the 53 promoted strategies (32%) in books for this age group.

A MANOVA (see Table 2, Supplemental Materials) found differences in mean number of strategies presented in books across the three reading levels, F(16, 126) = 3.31, p < 0.001. That is, books at the pre-K reading level had fewer advice seeking strategies presented and less emotional expression than did books for Grade 4+. However, books at the pre-K reading level had more prosocial responses than did books at both the Grade K-3 and Grade 4+ reading levels. Finally, books for the Grade 4 + reading level had the most rumination presented as a coping strategy.

Discussion

The present study sought to describe coping strategies in children’s books in the USA on bullying, including those that were successful and unsuccessful at resolving the bullying. In addition, this study examined potential differences in the coping strategies based on the reading level of the books. Findings are discussed in light of research on coping with peer victimization.

Bullying scenario and bullying type

The vast majority of bullying scenarios presented occurred in unstructured settings. According to research, this is an accurate description of real-life bullying situations (Olweus, 1993). However, relational bullying was dramatically under-represented in children’s literature as compared with physical and verbal aggression in spite of its real life prevalence and its occurrence at even very young ages (Johnson & Foster, 2005). Due to its covert nature, relational aggression is extremely difficult for adults to recognize or label as bullying, indicating the potential utility for future children’s literature to draw attention to this phenomenon and provide a forum to discuss how to cope with this form of bullying.

Coping strategies

The heterogeneity in coping strategies, similar to the general coping literature (Skinner et al., 2003), was captured by this qualitative method of studying children’s literature. Three coping strategies not identified in current research regarding children’s coping with bullying were identified. Active acceptance, tricking the bully, and scaring the bully were found in 14%, 11%, and 12% of the children’s storybooks, respectively. This finding might have important implications, suggesting that research may not capture the full range of coping responses utilized by children or at least those coping strategies to which children are exposed in children’s literature.

In addition to examining overall coping strategies within children’s storybooks, the present study also examined promoted coping strategies, as represented by the final strategy depicted. With regard to all coping strategies presented, 68% of the books depicted prosocial responses, which has been found to be an effective strategy (e.g. Roecker Phelps, 2001). Interestingly, 53% of the books depicted advice seeking at least once. However, only 1% of narratives presented advice seeking as the promoted coping strategy. This outcome is likely due to the advice seekers’ subsequent implementation of recommended strategies. Additionally, 44% of books included a bystander intervention, which is another strategy commonly promoted in bully intervention programs but not often researched (e.g. Kanetsuna, Smith, & Morita, 2006).

With regard to promoted coping strategies, those most commonly represented in the books were those that are often encouraged in bullying interventions—including befriending the bully, verbal confrontation, and bystander interventions (Kanetsuna et al., 2006; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). However, revenge seeking strategies of tricking, scaring, and retaliation against the bully accounted for 25% of promoted strategies, and distancing was also frequently modeled. These findings are concerning given that research suggests both revenge seeking and distancing strategies are counterproductive for coping with bullying and less effective at preventing future bullying (Kochenderfer-Ladd & Skinner, 2002; Visconti & Troop-Gordon, 2010).

Reading level

A significant inverse relationship of age and prosocial coping was found, in which prosocial responses decreased as the reading level increased. This is contrary to literature regarding social development and the development of coping skills, which suggests that with age children’s understanding and use of prosocial responses also increases (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007), and that aggression is more normative in younger than older children (Hunter et al., 2004).

Strategies of emotional expression and rumination, which tend to perpetuate or intensify bullying and its negative effects, both significantly increased with reading level. This finding is consistent with research on victim characteristics, which suggests that victims display a high level of emotional expression in bullying situations (Mahady et al., 2000). Though normatively, older children should improve their emotional regulation skills as they age and rely less on emotional expression as a coping strategy, this might not be true for victims of bullying. Rumination has been shown to increase with age as children grow in their cognitive abilities and gain the capacity to ruminate (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). These findings highlight the need for additional research on the role of emotional regulation in victimization.

Implications for providing psychological service to youth

Bibliotherapy may provide a unique opportunity for children to learn how to respond to bullying, and for schools to address student vulnerability and enhance protective factors that contribute to their resilience in the context of this significant peer stressor (Toland & Carrigan, 2011). Children might identify with fictional characters and bullying situations both at a cognitive and emotional level and gain insight more easily than talking directly about their own experiences. Findings from our study could have implications for those working with children—both clinicians and school staff alike. Additionally, because school-based interventions for peer victimization are often effectively implemented to prevent or decrease peer victimization (Ttofi & Farrington, 2011), bibliotherapy can be integrated into existing anti-bullying programming. Thus, bibliotherapy can be utilized within larger systemic interventions as an adjunct to school discipline, parental involvement, and increased supervision of unstructured school settings, in order to contribute to a healthy school climate (see Richard, Schneider, & Mallet, 2012; Ttofi & Farrington, 2011).

Because guidelines on the selection of books emphasize that both the problem and the advice given should be realistic (Heath et al., 2005), when children’s storybooks are used in bibliotherapy for helping children respond to bullying, they should contain both coping skills that are effective in reducing bullying and offer solutions that victims are realistically able to use. Findings from this study suggest that there are many storybooks containing coping strategies that would be appropriate to promote in responding to bullying, including prosocial responses, bystander interventions, and advice seeking. However, revenge seeking strategies and distancing were also prevalent. Psychological service providers and school staff are cautioned against using books promoting revenge strategies in bibliotherapy. However, books depicting these strategies in a situation that does not effectively reduce bullying could provide for a richer bibliotherapy experience. Overall, those working with children should be aware of the content in children’s literature in order for children to develop coping strategies for bullying and victimization.

Future directions and limitations

Overall, a strength of this study is the heterogeneity in coping strategies captured by our qualitative method of studying bullying scenarios presented in children’s books. In addition, we examined three coping strategies not previously identified. Specifically, coping through active acceptance of bullying was found to be utilized in many books, but historically has not been present on any coping measurement instruments. Additionally, revenge seeking strategies were divided into tricking-the-bully and scaring-the-bully as researchers, we believed that this distinction would lead to a clearer understanding of the coping utilized. This distinction did lead to a finding that tricking the bully is the most commonly implemented revenge seeking strategy. Future research may benefit from an expanded range of coping responses and exploration of the more nuanced aspects of previously identified categories.

Limitations include the selection bias in the children’s books included in this study. Although the search was conducted within an ethnically and nationally diverse setting, which resulted in what we believe is an excellent representation of children’s literature, the vast majority of books reviewed were published in the USA (five were published in countries outside of the USA). Books by international publishers were not easily available to us, and we may not have been qualified to review them (i.e. if they had been published in a language other than English). Based on the international literature regarding bullying, the bullying content and the types of bullying reviewed in the books likely is relevant to other cultural and national contexts—although perhaps setting and motivation-for-bullying would be different as these aspects of bullying do differ across settings. We hope that this review of this type of children’s literature will encourage practitioners to attend to certain aspects of books that might be used in bibliotherapy (as well as identify potentially negative messages about coping with bullying to which children are exposed). Further, we hope that this research will serve as a springboard for researchers and practitioners in other countries who would be qualified to review the books.

An additional limitation includes the narrative structure and often fantastical nature of children’s books, and the inability to locate all of the books on bullying that are available in general contexts (e.g. public libraries). Naturally, authors of children’s literature use drama and occasional twists to the plot. However, this does not negate the utility and influence of bibliotherapy with children. Books are an accessible and effective tool for modeling healthy coping for children. Authors should be aware of the power of their influence and the potential benefits or harm they could cause. Both clinicians and parents should be aware of the material in children’s literature, and discuss the books with children, reinforcing the positive coping strategies represented to encourage the children to practice them in daily life. It may also be helpful to discuss why negative strategies may be humorous or entertaining in a book, but not beneficial in real life situations. It is our hope that authors, clinicians, and school staff can use the findings of this study to author additional high quality books that integrate creativity and healthy coping skills. Specifically, books on relational bullying should be developed and shared with relevant professionals. Also, none of the books reviewed dealt with cyberbullying despite this form of bullying becoming an increasing international problem to which parents and schools need to respond (Cassidy, Brown, & Jackson, 2012; Monks, Robinson, & Worlidge, 2012; von Marees & Petermann, 2012). New children’s books should present an accurate portrayal of these forms of bullying and positive coping strategies, which would be beneficial for bullies, victims, and other children who could play a preventive role.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the graduate students who were involved in this research project and ensured its success, including J. Carrick Carter, Sofie Azmy, Ryan Hovis, Anna Quistad and Samuel Oldham.

Author biographies

Kelly S. Flanagan, PhD, is the Program Director for the PsyD Clinical Psychology Program at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. She has been on faculty at Wheaton College since 2005 after completing her doctorate in Child Clinical Psychology at the Pennsylvania State University. Her areas of interest and research include developmental psychopathology, peer relationships, school-based mental health, cultural understandings of risk and resilience, and forgiveness and children’s spirituality.

Kristin K. Vanden Hoek, MA, is a Graduate Student at Wheaton College pursuing her Doctorate in Clinical Psychology to practice predominantly with children, adolescents, and their families. Her research and clinical interests include peer victimization, forgiveness, empathy, child trauma and abuse, spirituality, and social-emotional development.

Andrew Shelton MA, is a Doctoral Student in the Department of Psychology at the University of North Texas. Andrew received his MA from Wheaton College and his BA from Baylor University. His primary research interests are attachment, acculturation, and parent-child relationships among immigrant families and US Latinos.

Sarah L. Kelly, MA, is a Graduate Student at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois, pursuing her Doctorate in Clinical Psychology to practice predominantly with children, adolescents, and their families. Her research and clinical interests include child trauma, peer victimization, coping, resilience, and international populations.

Chelsey M. Morrison, MA, is a Doctoral Student in the Clinical Psychology Program at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. Her research interests include developmental psychopathology and positive psychology.

Amy M. Young, MA, is a Doctoral Student in the Clinical Psychology Program at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. Her research interests include the cross-cultural examination of bullying and peer victimization in at-risk youth, developmental psychopathology, child trauma, and mindfulness.

References

Ackerson

Scogin

McKendree-Smith

Lyman

R. D.

(1998) Cognitive bibliotherapy for mild and moderate adolescent depressive symptomatology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66(4): 685–690. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.66.4.685.

Adams

S. J.

Pitre

(2000) Who uses bibliotherapy and why? A survey from an underserviced area. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 45: 645–649.

Altieri

J. L.

(2008) Fictional characters with dyslexia: What are we seeing in books? Teaching Exceptional Children 41(1): 48–54.

Andreou

Bonoti

(2010) Children’s bullying experiences expressed through drawings and self-reports. School Psychology International 31(2): 164–177. doi:10.1177/0143034309352421.

Boulton

M. J.

Smith

P. K.

Cowie

(2010) Short-term longitudinal relationships between children’s peer victimization/bulling experiences and self-perceptions: Evidence for reciprocity. School Psychology International 31(3): 296–311. doi: 10.1177/0143034310362329.

Cassidy

Brown

Jackson

(2012) ‘Under the radar’: Educators and cyberbullying in schools. School Psychology International 33(5): 520–532. doi: 10.1177/0143034312445245.

Chen

Astor

R. A.

(2009) The perpetration of school violence in Taiwan: An analysis of gender, grade level, and school type. School Psychology International 30(6): 568–584. doi: 10.1177/014303409107076.

Cheng

Chen

Cheng

(2011) Definitions of school bullying in Taiwan: A comparison of multiple perspectives. School Psychology International 32(3): 227–243. doi: 10.1177/0143034311404130.

Compas

B. E.

Connor-Smith

J. K.

Saltzman

Thomsen

Wadsworth

M. E.

(2001) Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin 127(1): 87–127. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87.

10.

Cook

C. R.

Williams

K. R.

Guerra

N. G.

Kim

T. E.

Sadek

(2010) Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology 25(2): 65–83. doi: 10.1037/a0020149.

11.

Cowie

(2000) Bystanding or standing by: gender issues in coping with bullying in English schools. Aggressive Behavior 26: 85–97. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:1<85::AID-AB7>3.0.CO;2-5.

12.

DeLisle

R. G.

Woods

A. S.

(1977) Children and death: Coping models in the literature. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice 14(4): 438–443. doi: 10.1037/h0087518.

13.

Due

Holstein

(2008) Bullying victimization among 13–15 year old school children: Results from two comparative studies in 66 countries and regions. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 20(2): 209–221. doi: 10.1515/IJAMH.2008.20.2.209.

14.

Due

Holstein

Lynch

Diderichsen

Gabhain

Scheidt

Currie

(2005) Bullying and symptoms among school-aged children: International comparative cross sectional study in 28 countries. European Journal of Public Health 15(2): 128–132. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/cki105.

15.

Egan

L. A.

Todorov

(2009) Forgiveness as a coping strategy to allow school students to deal with the effects of being bullied: Theoretical and empirical discussion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 28(2): 198–222. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.2.198.

16.

Elledge

L. C.

Cavell

T. A.

Ogle

N. T.

Malcolm

K. T.

Newgent

R. A.

Faith

M. A.

(2010) History of peer victimization and children’s response to school bullying. School Psychology Quarterly 25(2): 129–141. doi: 10.1037/a0020313.

17.

Febbraro

(2005) An investigation into the effectiveness of bibliotherapy and minimal contact interventions in the treatment of panic attacks. Journal of Clinical Psychology 61(6): 763–779. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20097.

18.

Grills

A. E.

Ollendick

T. H.

(2002) Peer victimization, global self-worth, and anxiety in middle school children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 31: 59–68. doi: 10.1207/153744202753441675.

19.

Hahlweg

Heinrichs

Kuschel

Feldmann

(2008) Therapist-assisted, self-administered bibliotherapy to enhance parental competence: Short- and long-term effects. Behavior Modification 32(5): 659–681. doi: 10.1177/0145445508317131.

20.

Hampel

Manhal

Hayer

(2009) Direct and relational bullying among children and adolescents: Coping and psychological adjustment. School Psychology International 30(5): 474–490. doi: 10.1177/0143034309107066.

21.

Hawker

D. S.

Boulton

M. J.

(2000) Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41(4): 441–455. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00629.

22.

Heath

M. A.

Sheen

Leavy

Young

Money

(2005) Bibliotherapy: A resource to facilitate emotional healing and growth. School Psychology International 26(5): 563–580. doi: 10.1177/0143034305060792.

23.

Hunter

S. C.

Boyle

J. M. E.

Warden

(2004) Help seeking amongst child and adolescent victims of peer-aggression and bullying: The influence of school-stage, gender, victimization, appraisal, and emotion. British Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 375–390. doi: 10.1348/0007099041552378.

24.

Jack

S. J.

Ronan

K. R.

(2008) Bibliotherapy: Practice and research. School Psychology International 29: 161–182. doi: 10.1177/0143034308090058.

25.

Johnson

D. R.

Foster

S. L.

(2005) The relationship between relational aggression in kindergarten children and friendship stability, mutuality, and peer liking. Early Education and Development 16(2): 141–160. doi: 10.1207/s15566935eed1602_3.

26.

Juvonen

Nishina

Graham

(2000) Peer harassment, psychological adjustment, and school functioning in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology 92: 349–359. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.349.

27.

Kanetsuna

Smith

P. K.

Morita

(2006) Coping with bullying at school: Children’s recommended strategies and attitudes to school-based interventions in England and Japan. Aggressive Behavior 32(6): 570–580. doi: 10.1002/ab.20156.

28.

Kochenderfer-Ladd

(2004) Peer victimization: The role of emotions in adaptive and maladaptive coping. Social Development 13(3): 329–349. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00271.x.

29.

Kochenderfer

B. J.

Ladd

G. W.

(1996) Peer victimization: Cause or consequence of school maladjustment? Child Development 67: 1305–1317. doi: 10.2307/1131701.

30.

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Skinner

(2002) Children’s coping strategies: Moderators of the effects of peer victimization. Developmental Psychology 38(2): 267–278. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.267.

31.

Larochette

Murphy

A. N.

Craig

W. M.

(2010) Racial bullying and victimization in Canadian school-aged children. School Psychology International 31(4): 389–408. doi: 10.1177/0143034310377150.

32.

Logan

K. J.

Mullins

Jones

K. M.

(2008) The depiction of stuttering in contemporary juvenile fiction: Implications for clinical practice. Psychology In The Schools 45(7): 609–626. doi: 10.1002/pits.20313.

33.

Mahady Wilton

M. M.

Craig

W. M.

(2000) Emotional regulation and display in classroom victims of bullying: Characteristic expressions of affect, coping styles and relevant contextual factors. Social Development 9(2): 226–244. doi: 10.1111/1467-9507.00121.

34.

Monks

C. P.

Robinson

Worlidge

(2012) The emergence of cyberbullying: A survey of primary school pupils’ perceptions and experiences. School Psychology International 33(5): 477–491. doi: 10.1177/0143034312445242.

35.

Nansel

T. R.

Overpeck

Pilla

R. S.

Ruan

W. J.

Simons-Morton

Scheidt

(2001) Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. The Journal of the American Medical Association 285(16): 2094–2100. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.16.2094.

36.

Naylor

Cowie

del Rey

(2001) Coping strategies of secondary school children in response to being bullied. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review 6(3): 114–120. doi: 10.1017/S1360641701002647.

37.

Oliver

R. L.

Young

T. A.

LaSalle

S. M.

(1994) Early lessons in bullying and victimization: The help and hindrance of children’s literature. School Counselor 42(2): 137–146.

38.

Olweus

(1993) Bullies on the playground: The role of victimization. In: Hart

C. H.

(eds) Children on playgrounds: Research perspectives and applications, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 85–128.

39.

Pehrsson

McMillen

P. S.

(2010) A national survey of bibliotherapy preparation and practices of professional counselors. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 5(4): 412–425. doi: 10.1080/15401383.2010.527807.

40.

Pellegrini

A. D.

Bartini

(2000) A longitudinal study of bullying, victimization, and peer affiliation during the transition from primary school to middle school. American Educational Research Journal 37: 699–725. doi: 10.2307/1163486.

41.

Rapee

Abbott

Lyneham

(2006) Bibliotherapy for children with anxiety disorders using written materials for parents: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74(3): 436–444. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.436.

42.

Reeves

Stace

(2005) Improving patient access and choice: Assisted bibliotherapy for mild to moderate stress/anxiety in primary care. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 12(3): 341–346. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2850.2005.00845.x.

43.

Reijntjes

Stegge

Terwogt

Kamphuis

Telch

(2006) Children’s coping with in vivo peer rejection: An experimental investigation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 34(6): 877–889. doi: 10.1007/s10802-006-9061-8.

44.

Richard

Schneider

Mallet

(2012) Revisiting the whole-school approach to bullying: Really looking at the whole school. School Psychology International 33(3): 263–284. doi: 10.1177/0143034311415906.

45.

Roecker Phelps

C. E.

(2001) Children’s responses to overt and relational aggression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 30(1): 240–252. doi: 10.1207/S15374424JCCP3002_11.

46.

Rubin

R. J.

(1978) Using bibliotherapy: A guide to theory and practice, Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

47.

Sandstrom

M. J.

(2004) Pitfalls of the peer world: How children cope with common rejection experiences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32(1): 67–81. doi: 10.1023/B:JACP.0000007581.95080.8b.

48.

Scambler

D. J.

Harris

M. J.

Milich

(1998) Sticks and stones: Evaluations of responses to childhood teasing. Social Development 7(2): 234–249. doi: 10.1111/1467-9507.00064.

49.

Shechtman

(2006) The contribution of bibliotherapy to the counseling of aggressive boys. Psychotherapy Research 16: 631–636. doi: 10.1080/10503300600591312.

50.

Shin

(2010) Psychosocial and friendship characteristics of bully/victim subgroups in Korean primary school children. School Psychology International 31(4): 372–388. doi: 10.1177/0143034310377296.

51.

Skinner

E. A.

Edge

Altman

Sherwood

(2003) Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin 129(2): 216–269. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216.

52.

Skinner

E. A.

Zimmer-Gembeck

M. J.

(2007) The development of coping. Annual Review of Psychology 58: 119–144. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085705.

53.

Smith

P. K.

Shu

Madsen

(2001) Characteristics of victims of school bullying. In: Juvonen

Graham

(eds) Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized, New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

54.

Smokowski

P. R.

Kopasz

(2005) Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, family characteristics, and intervention strategies. Children and Schools 27(2): 101–110.

55.

Sontag

Graber

J. A.

(2010) Coping with perceived peer stress: Gender-specific and common pathways to symptoms of psychopathology. Developmental Psychology 46(6): 1605–1620. doi: 10.1037/a0020617.

56.

Toland

Carrigan

(2011) Educational psychology and resilience: New concept, new opportunities. School Psychology International 32: 95–106. doi: 10.1177/0143034310397284.

57.

Ttofi

M. M.

Farrington

D. P.

(2011) Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A Systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology 7(1): 27–56. doi: 10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1.

58.

Tussing

H. L.

Valentine

D. P.

(2001) Helping adolescents cope with the mental illness of a parent through bibliotherapy. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 18: 455–469. doi: 10.1023/A:1012992116742.

59.

Visconti

K. J.

Troop-Gordon

(2010) Prospective relations between children’s responses to peer victimization and their socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 31: 261–272. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2010.05.003.

60.

Von Marées

Petermann

(2012) Cyberbullying: An increasing challenge for schools. School Psychology International 33(5): 467–476. doi: 10.1177/0143034312445241.

61.

Von Marées

Petermann

(2010) Bullying in German primary schools: Gender differences, age trends, and influence of parents’ migration and educational backgrounds. School Psychology International 31(2): 178–198. doi: 10.1177/0143034309352416.

62.

Webb

N. B.

(2011) Play therapy for bereaved children: Adapting strategies to community, school, and home settings. School Psychology International 32: 132–143. doi: 10.1177/0143034311400832.

63.

Wei

Chen

(2012) The moderating effect of Machiavellianism on the relationship between bullying, peer acceptance, and school adjustment in adolescents. School Psychology International 33(3): 345–363. doi: 10.1177/014303431120640.

64.

Wei

Jonson-Reid

(2011) Friends can hurt you: Examining the coexistence of friendship and bullying among early adolescents. School Psychology International 32(3): 244–262. doi: 10.1177/0143034311402310.