Supporting Student Veteran Transition to College and Academic Success

Abstract

Veterans enrolled in college face unique challenges compared with those of traditional students. Their experiences and perspectives, coupled with battling stereotypes and entering an unstructured college setting, contribute toward what can be a difficult transition. Student veteran organizations, veteran resource centers, veteran-specific orientations, and faculty training are relatively new approaches used by universities and have not been well-researched or reported. Educators need to be aware of the currently offered services and prepared to establish a safe environment for student veterans in their classrooms. By acknowledging student veterans and understanding how to support them in the classroom, education providers may be less concerned about the veteran stereotypes that persist today. This article provides adult educators with an overview of student veterans and their transition into college, offers suggestions to ease veterans’ adjustment to the classroom, and provides research opportunities for faculty to further advance higher education’s understanding of student veterans.

Keywords

student veteran support campus veteran-friendly faculty

“The number of service members leaving the military in the near future will grow as troop reductions are initiated, leading many veterans to the classroom.”

The last 10 years have signified a shift in the type and amount of support services offered to student veterans. To some, the argument that transitioning out of the military and into the classroom can be as stressful as a deployment may seem absurd. In reality, the challenge of reintegrating back into society while pursuing a college education might be the most difficult barrier a student veteran faces (Kirchner, Coryell, & Yelich Biniecki, 2014). The sudden shift from the structured military to a less-structured college environment can be challenging (Rumann, Rivera, & Hernandez, 2011). While the transition itself can be difficult, financial aid makes it easier for veterans to access college as more than one million students have utilized the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, otherwise known as the “GI Bill” (Garcia & Meijer, 2013). Furthermore, the number of service members leaving the military in the near future will grow as troop reductions are initiated, leading many veterans to the classroom.

As the Veterans Affairs Undersecretary, Allison Hickey, noted, 73% of all separating service members plan to use their education benefit (Student Veterans of America, 2013b). The need to provide retention and graduation-impacting support services is critical. Adult educators need to be aware of the programs and services available to student veterans to promote their school as military-friendly. Currently, there are at least five organizations—Military Times, GI Jobs, U.S. Veterans Magazine, Military Friendly, Guide to Online Schools—promoting and generating lists of the top military-friendly or veteran-friendly schools, each having their own set of guidelines. These lists comprise thousands of schools nationwide, making it difficult to assess the components of a truly supportive campus for student veterans.

The rapid growth of available services reflects the number of student veterans enrolled in college. An analysis of the available programming and services, and how student veterans perceive the classroom experience, enhances educators’ understanding of post-secondary education for veterans. Readers will learn about student veterans and currently offered supportive programs, support strategies adult educators can use in the classroom, and future research opportunities within the student veteran community.

Student Veterans

An understanding of student veterans is necessary before reviewing available services. These individuals come from all branches of service and are widely dispersed across colleges in the United States. A student veteran is anyone on active-duty, in reserve or National Guard status, retired from the military, or who has completed military service and participates in post-secondary education (Brown & Gross, 2011). They range widely in age, from 18 to senior citizen status, but average 33 years of age (Whiteman, Barry, Mroczek, & MacDermid Wadsworth, 2013). Potentially contributing to the challenge, student veterans are likely the first in their family to attend college (Kim & Cole, 2013). In addition, many desire to seek out other veterans who can relate to their experiences (Rumann et al., 2011).

According to the Pew Research Center (2011), 84% of post-9/11 veterans report the public does not understand the problems they and their families face, and 71% of the general public agrees. This knowledge gap compounds the challenges already faced by student veterans, including entering classrooms with traditional aged undergraduates and leaving a highly structured military setting for the less-structured college campus. Furthermore, veterans are transitioning into a post-secondary environment that often does not understand them and can at times be unsupportive (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Acknowledgment of the civilian–veteran divide is a first step toward reducing stress levels associated with service members leaving the military. When veterans choose to enroll in college, they often find supportive programs and services ready to assist.

Direct Support

Student veterans are experiencing increased opportunities to directly engage with other veterans on college campuses. These students appreciate the opportunity to meet and interact with others on campus, which helps make the college environment feel less isolating (Rumann et al., 2011). Student veteran organizations and veteran resource centers are opening nationwide and provide a risk-free atmosphere to interact with peers who have similar experiences and understand military culture (Summerlot, Green, & Parker, 2009). These two types of programs can directly contribute to the college experience for veterans.

Created in 2008, the Student Veterans of America (SVA) is a nationwide organization providing support for military students through university chapters. Student organizations are a low-cost opportunity to meet peers without the threat of a time commitment. Research overwhelmingly suggests veterans desire a chance to connect with other student veterans (DiRamio et al., 2008). Cook and Kim (2009) argued only 32% of institutions with services for military students offered clubs or student organizations. That number has likely increased as more than 1,100 SVA chapters have been established across the United States since 2008 (Student Veterans of America, 2013a). These organizations form through student veterans taking action to enhance their college experience; student veteran organization members provide ideas to staff about how to meet the needs of veteran students and can serve as a starting point for students new to campus (Summerlot et al., 2009).

Similar to student veteran organizations, veteran-specific resource centers are comparatively new and, thus, still establishing their identity on college campuses. One immediate benefit is the center’s ability to serve as a first-stop shop. Student veterans often complain about missing a chain of command (Glasser, Powers, & Zywiak, 2009). To substitute, these offices can answer many student veteran questions, whether orienting the student or assisting with the career transition. In addition, resource centers provide a safe place, away from the chaos of a college campus primarily composed of young adults who may be without significant life experiences. Veterans experience feelings of isolation when enrolled in college because they are not in uniform and have not developed a new social network (Brown & Gross, 2011). Kirchner, Coryell, and Yelich Biniecki (2014) noted the frustration student veterans reported in their inability to connect with other veterans. Interacting with civilian students can present a challenge for current and former service members because of the military background that is now a part of the veteran’s identity (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). A resource center offers veterans a chance to engage in a safe environment with others who share similar backgrounds, while supplementary opportunities can thrust schools to truly veteran-friendly levels.

Additional Campus Support

The level of support student veterans receive influences their ability to successfully transition into higher education (Ryan, Carlstrom, Hughey, & Harris, 2011). Colleges interested in student veterans are beginning to recognize the impact staff and supportive services have toward student veteran success (National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 2013). Outside of resource centers and student-led veteran organizations, campuses can offer additional support programs. The following programs and representatives compliment campus veteran organizations.

First, orientation sessions aimed to meet the needs of student veterans can alleviate some concerns. The first days of college can be intimidating for any student veteran. They are leaving a highly structured environment with heavy reliance on external authority and transitioning into one of great openness and opportunity to explore (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). Orientations offer financial, education benefits, and health benefits information and coping strategies as well as connect students to community groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars (Ryan, Carlstrom, Hughey, & Harris, 2011). While participating, the veteran is exposed to other new faces beginning their college career. Focused transition sessions offer an opportunity to interact with diverse individuals, aiding the transitioning process (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). By meeting other students during orientation, student veterans can begin building a strong support network.

Second, advisors play a necessary role in veteran transition. For example, the veteran may be struggling with his or her identity and decision to enroll and be part of this new environment (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). Veterans can leave the service for a variety of reasons, including the desire to pursue higher education, personal struggles, disability, or troop drawdowns. The key is for staff to understand the underlying issues involved in the transition process (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). If trained to provide adequate support for veterans, advisors can recognize special needs, offer credit transfer assistance, clarify education assistance programs, and ultimately prove vital to the student’s success (DiRamio et al., 2008).

An argument can be made for at least one full-time employee or committee devoted to meeting the needs of student veterans (Rumann & Hamrick, 2009). These individuals or groups serve as a resource for military and veteran students, as well as their families, by advocating for military-related policies and sponsoring activities that recognize student veterans (Ford, Northrup, & Wiley, 2009). Fortunately, more than 75% of responding universities reported having at least one individual focused on student veterans, though their role is unclear (National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 2013). Colleges that process military education benefits must have a certifying official, who may be the only on-campus staff member devoted to military and student veterans. These staff members may quickly find they are the point person for all student veterans on campus. To broaden responsibility, colleges can educate their faculty and staff about military service, the challenges faced by veterans in the classroom, and the ways to support military and veteran students.

Supportive Faculty

To provide support, faculty need training to learn more about the active-duty and veteran student (Schnoebelen, 2013). Similar to the 71% of the general public who admit to knowing little about the military experience, 72% of participating faculty at the University of Nevada–Reno expressed knowing their student veterans a “little bit or moderately” (Gonzalez & Elliott, 2013, p. 6). This lack in understanding is likely due to the lack of faculty training. Faculty prepared to educate student veterans, for example, may recognize when the student is struggling. Similarly, Colonel Sutherland, a brigade commander who served in Iraq, echoed the need for faculty development programs so instructors can understand why a veteran jumps when a door is slammed (Wallis, 2012).

Establishing a classroom where the student veteran feels safe is a starting point for adult educators interested in enhancing the veteran’s experience. Holley and Steiner (2005) suggested a safe classroom consists of a climate where students “feel secure enough to take risks, honestly express their views, and share and explore their knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors” (p. 51). Veterans may not be interested in talking about their military experience or may struggle with being the lone representative from the armed forces. In this case, educators can recognize a safe classroom environment consists of respecting the soldier’s privacy, unless the veteran chooses to disclose his or her experience.

Adult educators should also consider the comments made by non-military students about wars, government, and the military. Specifically, people need to know there is etiquette when asking or talking about military service (Hermann, Hopkins, Wilson, & Allen, 2011). For example, comments about “wasting human life” and “soldiers running around screaming ‘America’ while killing people” are triggers for those who have served or had family serve (R. A. Frey, personal communication, October 9, 2014). Rae Anne Frey admitted needing to leave the classroom after a classmate made such remarks (R. A. Frey, personal communication, October 9, 2014). Educators can intervene and redirect conversations as well as express general support for service members in an attempt to maintain a safe environment. In addition, facilitators can suggest ground rules prior to sensitive topic discussions.

Numerous online webinars and trainings present opportunities to learn more about the student veteran experience, challenges, and available resources. The American Council on Education, Student Veterans of America, Kognito Interactive, and Military Friendly Schools are just a few organizations with student veteran-focused webinars. For example, Kognito Interactive (2013) has an online, interactive learning experience for faculty and staff in understanding the needs and experiences of student veterans titled “Veterans on Campus for Faculty and Staff.” To assist educators, this short training simulates an experience a veteran may have on campus or in the classroom. Educators’ participation in online training sessions can clarify their questions about student veterans.

The Federal government has established an additional tool for educators working with student veterans. Executive Order No. 13607 (2012), otherwise known as the Principles of Excellence, ensures Federal military and education benefit programs provide service members, veterans, spouses, and their families deserved information, support, and protections. For example, the order requires instructors to accommodate student veterans’ short absences due to service obligations. When enrolled in college, veterans may concurrently serve on active military duty or in reserve status—obligations that may conflict with class schedules through no fault of the student. Although some service obligations allow for flexibility, many are firm. For universities accepting education benefits from the federal government, classroom instructors must work with student veterans to accommodate needs. Similar to how the federal government has addressed evolving student veteran needs, researchers can explore a host of topics.

Future Research Opportunities

Understanding and supporting student veterans remains a relatively unexplored field. The GI Bill (2012), established in 1944, offered veterans access to a college education that previously was unattainable. Accordingly, millions of veterans became college students as the federal government invested billions of dollars. Remarkably, assessment of the investment’s impact did not ensue until recently and little research has been conducted regarding the effectiveness of support initiatives for student veterans. Much of the literature on student veterans is conceptual and difficult to assess, thus presenting opportunity for research.

Clarification of a veteran resource center’s impact on student veterans may offer insight into this population’s needs. The role of these centers is still cloudy as articulated by Margaret Baechtold, director of the Veterans Support Center at Indiana University, who claimed her center’s role is to provide any kind of support the student veteran needs (Indiana University Foundation, 2010). Although admirable, reality suggests the desire to meet all military and veteran student needs will be a difficult goal to achieve. If researchers can demonstrate resource centers increase retention, graduation rates, and student satisfaction of student veterans, universities would be more likely to invest in the program.

A second need is to learn what faculty and instructors believe about student veterans. Gonzalez and Elliott (2013) found University of Nevada–Reno faculty did not believe student veterans had issues fitting in, contradicting student veterans’ claims (DiRamio et al., 2008; Rumann et al., 2011). Some faculty argue they can usually identify the veterans in their classroom as “they are all well groomed and sit tall in their chairs … they listen intently but tend not to ask questions” (Heath, 2010, p. 20). One possible reason for the knowledge gap is that veterans make up only 3% of the student body (Hopkins, Hermann, Wilson, Allen, & Malley, 2010). In fact, veterans have been stigmatized and experience feelings of isolation (Moxley, 2011). Stereotypes against any student have shown to impact performance and increase discomfort in the classroom (Steele, 2011).

Post-traumatic stress, or more commonly known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), is one stereotype affecting student veterans. PTSD is an anxiety disorder that one may develop after experiencing a terrifying event, including personal assaults, accidents, or military combat (“Definition of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” 2013). In a 2008 study of nearly 2,000 veterans, only 13.8% of veterans from the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars displayed symptoms of PTSD (Tanielian & Jaycox, 2008), compared with 53% of surveyed civilians who believed the majority of returning vets suffer from PTSD (Jordan, 2012). Although rates of PTSD widely vary (see Hoge, Auchterlonie, & Milliken, 2006; Seal, Bertenthal, Miner, Sen, & Marmar, 2007), the stigma is prominent and likely contributes to how student veterans are perceived in the classroom.

Student veteran retention remains relatively unexplored. Retention indicators include strong academic advising programs, special orientations for veterans, early warning systems, tutoring programs, freshmen seminars, and mandated course placement testing programs (Lang & Powers, 2011). Perhaps not surprisingly, student veteran retention estimates range from 12% (Briggs, 2012) to 60%, a percentage higher than the national average (Sugden & Kerali, 2013). Part of the challenge in estimating education persistence for veterans results from federal statistics on college graduation rates only including first-time, full-time, non-transfer students (Schnoebelen, 2013). The National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (2013) found only 33% of responding universities track the retention of student veterans, although an additional 38% planned to track retention within the next 2 years.

The Student Veterans of America (2014) partnered with the Department of Veterans Affairs and the National Student Clearinghouse for a study titled “Million Records Project,” a database of student veteran graduation rates. This study is the first extensive piece of national research on student veteran attrition and graduation and reported strong graduation with the majority of student veterans earning a degree. Fortunately, individual schools are beginning to do a better job of tracking veterans (Fain, 2013).

In addition, adult educators can examine the overall influence student veteran support services have on student satisfaction. The cost of providing comprehensive support services for student veterans as well as training for faculty and staff is worth noting. At a time of budget shortfalls, universities will be hard-pressed to invest additional resources into programs they know little about. Research justifying the impact of trained staff, resource centers, and safe classroom environments can contribute to our understanding of supportive programming on student veteran satisfaction.

Implications for Adult Educators

Student veterans are non-traditional participants on college campuses with unique needs. According to the Washington Department of Veterans Affairs (2009), although veterans share commonalities, each has lived his or her own military experience. They enter the classroom coming from a very different experience than the traditional freshman (Baechtold & De Sawal, 2009) and have perspectives and concerns posing serious obstacles for the student to overcome. Understanding available resources and the adult educator’s role is a first step toward enhancing the student experience.

Support services for student veterans and adult educators are increasing, each contributing to the experience current and former service members have while enrolled in college. The emphasis on supporting this population needs to be buoyed with evidence. Until data demonstrates veteran resource centers, student organizations, and additional programs significantly impact retention, graduation, and overall satisfaction rates for veterans, universities and the federal government can argue against needed support. The development of a comprehensive knowledge base further enables education providers to establish safe classroom environments, provide sufficient support to student veterans, and advocate on behalf of the student.

The number of veterans enrolled in college is expected to rise over the next 5 years, and universities across the country are preparing for the influx. This article provides background information about student veterans and argues adult educators need to be aware of available services and accommodations. Educators play a vital role in the college experience for veterans and have an opportunity to create a safe, welcoming setting for transitioning soldiers. Veterans who feel comfortable and connected to campus are more likely to be retained, graduate, and pursue further education. Equally important, veterans who believe they are in a safe place can provide a unique perspective to classroom discussions, vital for the development of all students.

Footnotes

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biography

Michael J. Kirchner is director of the Military and Veterans Resource Center (MAVRC) at the University of Wisconsin (UW)–Milwaukee. Prior to becoming the MAVRC director, Kirchner spent 6 years in the Army National Guard, including a 1-year deployment to Iraq, and is co-founder of the Student Veterans of America: UW–Milwaukee chapter. He is completing his doctorate coursework in the urban education program at UW–Milwaukee and has an MS in administrative leadership.

References

Baechtold

De Sawal

D. M.

(2009). Meeting the needs of women veterans. In Ackerman

DiRamio

(Eds.), Creating a veteran-friendly campus: Strategies for transition and success (pp. 35-44). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Briggs

(2012, July 2). Thousands of veterans failing in latest battlefield: College. NBC News. Retrieved from http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/07/02/12509343-thousands-of-veterans-failing-in-latest-battlefield-college

Brown

P. A.

Gross

(2011). Serving those who have served—Managing veteran and military best practices. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 59, 45-49.

Cook

B. J.

Kim

(2009). From soldier to student: Easing the transition of service members on campus. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Definition of post-traumatic stress disorder. (2013). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=18779

DiRamio

Ackerman

Mitchell

R. L.

(2008). From combat to campus: Voices of student-veterans. NASPA Journal, 45, 73-102.

DiRamio

Jarvis

(2011). Special issue: Veterans in higher education—When Johnny and Jane come marching to campus. ASHE Higher Education Report, 37, 1-144.

Executive Order No. 13607, 3 C.F.R. (2012), reprinted as continued provision in U.S.C. 10 (2007).

Fain

(2013, January 8). Do veterans graduate? [Web log post]. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/08/new-effort-collect-student-veterans-graduation-rates

10.

Ford

Northrup

Wiley

(2009). Connections, partnerships, opportunities, and programs to enhance success for military students. In Ackerman

DiRamio

(Eds.), Creating a veteran-friendly campus: Strategies for transition and success (pp. 61-69). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

11.

Garcia

Meijer

(2013, November 13). How the GI Bill is forming the future of a new middle class. The Daily Beast. Retrieved from http://www.thedailybeast.com/the-hero-project/articles/2013/11/13/how-the-gi-bill-is-forming-the-future-of-a-new-middle-class.html

12.

Bill

. (2012, February 29). Next New Deal: The Blog of Roosevelt Institute. Retrieved from www.nextnewdeal.net/gi-bill

13.

Glasser

Powers

J. T.

Zywiak

W. H.

(2009). Military veterans at universities. Anthropology News, 50, 33.

14.

Gonzalez

Elliott

(2013). What faculty say about student veterans. Retrieved from http://www.unr.edu/Documents/president/uvc/What-Faculty-Say-About-Student-Veterans-41613.pdf

15.

Heath

(2010). Do you hear my silence? Listening to the untold stories of military students. In Hopkins

Hermann

Wilson

R. B.

Allen

Malley

(Eds.), Improving college education for veterans (pp. 19-28). Lexington, KY: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

16.

Hermann

Hopkins

Wilson

R. B.

Allen

(2011). Progress in educating veterans in the 21st century. Lexington, KY: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

17.

Hoge

C. W.

Auchterlonie

J. L.

Milliken

C. S.

(2006). Mental health problems, use of mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 1023-1032.

18.

Holley

L. C.

Steiner

(2005). Safe space: Student perspectives on classroom environment. Journal of Social Work Education, 41, 49-64.

19.

Hopkins

Hermann

Wilson

R. B.

Allen

Malley

(Eds.). (2010). Improving college education for veterans. Lexington, KY: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

20.

Indiana University Foundation. (2010). Veterans support center builds bridges. Imagine. Retrieved from http://imagine.iuf.indiana.edu/archive/fall10/articles/veterans-support-center.html

21.

Jordan

(2012, June 14). Poll: America values vets but stereotypes them. Military.com News. Retrieved from http://www.military.com/daily-news/2012/06/14/poll-america-values-vets-but-stereotypes-them.html

22.

Kim

Y. M.

Cole

J. S.

(2013). Student veteran/service members’ engagement in college and university life and education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

23.

Kirchner

Coryell

Yelich Biniecki

(2014). Promising practices for engaging student veterans. Quality Approaches in Higher Education, 5(1), 12-18.

24.

Kognito Interactive. (2013). Veterans on campus for faculty & staff. Retrieved from http://resources.kognito.com/voc/voc_faculty_overview.pdf

25.

Lang

W. A.

Powers

J. T.

(2011). Completing the mission: A pilot study of veteran students’ progress toward degree attainment in the post 9/11 era. Retrieved from http://www.operationpromiseforservicemembers.com/Completing_the_Mission_Nov2011.pdf

26.

Moxley

(2011, September 5). Former marine adjusts to life at Virginia tech. The Roanoke Times. Retrieved from http://www.roanoke.com/news/former-marine-adjusts-to-life-at-virginia-tech/article_60831269-5f2b-5250-bde2-cf90619b8cc4.html?mode=story

27.

National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. (2013). Measuring the success of student veterans and active duty military students. Retrieved from http://www.naspa.org/images/uploads/main/NASPA_vets_13%281%29.pdf

28.

Pew Research Center. (2011). The military-civilian gap: War and sacrifice in the post-9/11 era. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2011/10/war-and-sacrifice-in-the-post-9-11-era.pdf

29.

Rumann

C. B.

Hamrick

F. A.

(2009). Supporting student veterans in transition. New Directions for Student Services, 2009(126), 25-34.

30.

Rumann

Rivera

Hernandez

(2011). Student veterans and community colleges. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2011(155), 51-58.

31.

Ryan

S. W.

Carlstrom

A. H.

Hughey

K. F.

Harris

B. S.

(2011). From boots to books: Applying Schlossberg’s model to transitioning American veterans. NACADA Journal, 31, 55-63.

32.

Schnoebelen

(2013). Group offers advice for helping military and veteran students. Chronicle of Higher Education, 59(26), A21-A22.

33.

Seal

K. H.

Bertenthal

Miner

C. R.

Sen

Marmar

(2007). Bringing the war back home: Mental health disorders among 103,788 US veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan seen at Department of Veterans Affairs facilities. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167, 476-482.

34.

Steele

(2011). Whistling Vivaldi: How stereotypes affect us and what we can do. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

35.

Student Veterans of America. (2013a). Our story. Retrieved from http://www.studentveterans.org/index.php/aboutus/history

36.

Student Veterans of America. (2013b, November 8). VA announces one millionth G.I. Bill beneficiary. Retrieved from http://www.studentveterans.org/index.php/media-news/185-va-announces-one-millionth-beneficiary

37.

Student Veterans of America. (2014). Million records project. Retrieved from http://www.studentveterans.org/index.php/what-we-do/million-records-project

38.

Sugden

Kerali

(2013, May 2). Debate over student veteran graduation rages on. Half the Battle. Retrieved from http://halfbattle2013.org/2013/05/02/debate-over-student-veteran-graduation-rate-rages-on/

39.

Summerlot

Green

S. M.

Parker

(2009). Student veterans organizations. In Ackerman

DiRamio

(Eds.), Creating a veteran-friendly campus: Strategies for transition and success (pp. 71-80). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

40.

Tanielian

Jaycox

L. H.

(Eds.). (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG720.html

41.

Wallis

(2012, February 29). Coming home from war to hit the books. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/01/education/soldiers-come-home-to-hit-the-books.html

42.

Washington Department of Veterans Affairs. (2009). Veteran guidelines and best practices in the classroom. Retrieved from http://www.dva.wa.gov/sites/default/files/Veteran_Best_Practices_in_the_Classroom_0.pdf

43.

Whiteman

S. D.

Barry

A. E.

Mroczek

D. K.

MacDermid Wadsworth

(2013). The development and implications of peer emotional support for student service members/veterans and civilian college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 265-278.