Demonstrating the Reliability and Validity of the Self-Appraisal Questionnaire for Assessing Violent and Nonviolent Recidivism with Female Offenders in South Africa

Abstract

Explanations regarding the involvement of females in crime, justice, and punishment in South Africa are primarily based on the experiences of male offenders with little knowledge about the criminogenic offender assessment of female offenders. The Self-Appraisal Questionnaire (SAQ) is an actuarial measure designed for the identification of offenders’ static and dynamic risk factors and criminogenic needs that may increase or diminish their risk upon release. This study involves a sample of 284 female offenders incarcerated in three inter-provincial correctional centers in South Africa. The goal of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the SAQ in relation to its reliability, validity, and potential use as part of the criminogenic assessment of female offenders, within the multicultural South African context. Research results indicated that the SAQ is reliable and valid to use with South African offenders.

Keywords

self-appraisal questionnaire (SAQ)reliability validity female offenders criminogenic assessment

Introduction

Although a global increase in the incarcerated women population has been reported (Parry, 2019), Dastile (2010) asserts that female offenders in South Africa represent the fastest growing group of offenders. The number of women incarcerated in South Africa increased by 68% over the past decade (Prinsloo & Hesselink, 2015). Over a period of 6 years and based upon known statistics for the period from 2014/2015 to 2019/2020, an average of approximately 2915 sentenced women were annually incarcerated in South African correctional centers, representing 2.5% of the total sentenced correctional population (Department of Correctional Services [DCS], 2020, p. 45, 46).

According to Parry (2019), this is a concern, as the small women population is a minor community within a male-dominated correctional environment. As a consequence, this may lead to female offenders’ marginalization where their needs or experiences in the correctional system are neither recognized nor legitimized (Parry, 2019). As a result, women's pathways to offending and incarceration are often interpreted to be the same as those of male offenders, thereby delegitimizing any role that gender may play in offending behavior (see Loza et al., 2005). Artz et al. (2012) confirm that the explanations of female involvement in crime, justice, and punishment in South Africa, emerged predominantly from the experiences of male offenders. Consequently, little is known about the interactive circumstances and pathways that lead women to commit crimes (Dastile & Hesselink, 2019). Despite the growth in women serving custodial correctional sentences in South Africa, little research has been done regarding their involvement in crime, and little is known about the criminogenic offender assessment of female offenders, even though such knowledge would be important for correctional intervention within the female population (Dastile, 2010). Criminological offender assessment comprises all aspects associated with an offender's criminal behavior (offending characteristics and influences) that can determine an offender's personal needs, risks, and responsiveness (treatability; Van Niekerk, 2021).

It has been reliably demonstrated that offender risk assessment, using structured instruments based on criminogenic needs and using probabilistic techniques to forecast criminal behavior, provides greater accuracy, and validity than those that rely on unstructured clinical (binary) diagnoses alone (Berk & Bleich, 2014; Williams et al., 2017). As the management of incarcerated offenders is becoming increasingly challenging, several offender risk instruments have been developed, which have increasingly become an integral component of correctional offender management protocols (Williams et al., 2017).

Actuarial measures to predict violent and nonviolent recidivism gained international importance and is currently accepted as an accurate approach to predicting recidivism risk on release from correctional institutions (Berk & Bleich, 2014; Loza et al., 2005). In addition to the abovementioned concerns of Artz et al. (2012), Dastile (2010), and Parry (2019), it was confirmed by Loza et al. (2005) that these actuarial measures were primarily introduced for the use with male offenders who internationally dominate the crime phenomenon. Therefore, the usefulness of actuarial measures as far as their application to female offenders are concerned, did not receive attention.

Cornwell (2003) emphasizes that it is crucial for every sentenced offender to receive an offender risk assessment upon arrival at the correctional institution to establish the risk he/she may pose. Risk needs also measure individual intervention programs as well as the assessment of rehabilitative prognosis. Furthermore, risks need to assist with educated decision-making for releasing offenders based on their probability of recidivism (see Andreu-Rodriguez et al., 2016; Loza, 2018).

It is the objective of this study to examine the psychometric properties of the SAQ in relation to its reliability, validity, and potential application as part of the criminogenic assessment of female offenders, within the multicultural South African and international contexts.

Method

Participants

According to Palinkas et al. (2015), purposeful sampling involves the non-probabilistic selection of individuals who are available and willing to participate in research, are knowledgeable about a phenomenon of interest, and are able to communicate their lived experiences in a reflective manner. A sample of 284 female offenders incarcerated in different correctional centers in Johannesburg, Kroonstad, Pollsmoor, and Pretoria, situated in three provinces, namely Gauteng, The Free State, and Western Cape of South Africa, formed the participants of this study. The demographic characteristics outlining the race and ages of the participants are reported below.

The South African population is estimated at 60,114,354 people of whom 51.1% were reportedly female. As such, the female representation per population group is Black Africans 80.8%, Colored 8.8%, Whites 7.9%, and Asians 2.5% (South African Population, 2021; Statistics South Africa, 2020). The mean age of the participants was 33.9 years (SD = 9.2) and most of the participants were Africans (42.6%), followed by Coloreds (31.3%), Whites (24%), and Asians (2.1%). Even though the participants represent a nonrandom purposive sample, it appears that Colored and White participants are overrepresented in terms of the national benchmark.

Next, the crimes for which the participants were convicted are reported.

Approximately 64% of the participants were convicted of nonviolent crimes; mainly theft (27.9%), drug-related crimes (17.9%), burglary (4.1%), and fraud (13.8%). Some theft and burglary-related offenses were also linked to drug-related offenses. This trend corresponds with the situation in the United Kingdom and Wales where 72% of female offenders are sentenced for nonviolent crimes (Webster, 2021). Nevertheless, several offenders were involved in murder or attempted murder (15.7%), aggravated robbery (3.8%) which involves a firearm or other kind of dangerous weapon, as well as aggravated assault (3.4%) which also involves some dangerous weapon which is used to cause intentional bodily harm to the victim. Although women are involved in serious violent crimes, their involvement is in stark contrast to the dominant involvement of men in violent crimes of more than 75% (see Prinsloo, 2021).

Almost one-third (31%) of the participants were serving custodial sentences of less than 2 years, which are not only counterproductive in terms of reform initiatives but also a huge financial burden for the taxpayer to shoulder (see Prison Reform Trust, 2021; Webster, 2021). Nearly 43% (42.6%) of participants served sentences of 3–9 years. About 20% of the participants served sentences of 10–20 years, while the sentences of 6.4% of the participants exceeded 20 years due to the seriousness of their crimes.

Measures

The Self-Appraisal Questionnaire (SAQ) is an available actuarial measure designed for the assessment of offenders and the prediction of future violent and nonviolent recidivism. It is a self-administered multidimensional scale that has been developed consistent with the predominant factors associated with recidivism, to identify offenders’ criminogenic needs, to assist with the selection of appropriate institutional security levels, and help with assigning offenders to appropriate rehabilitative programs.

The SAQ is comprised of 72 items that measure the following subscales (Loza, 2018):

Criminal Tendencies: These are the antisocial attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings associated with a criminal lifestyle.

Antisocial Personality Problems: These involve characteristics similar to those used to diagnose Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) which has been the psychiatric diagnosis traditionally used to predict recidivism.

Conduct Problems: These are childhood behavioral problems that are among the best predictors of later offending and the development of a criminal career.

Criminal History: Past criminality is a robust predictor of future offending behavior.

Alcohol and Drug Abuse: The association between substance abuse and crime and violence is a common case—it is well-known among professionals in the Criminal Justice System—and it correlates with recidivism.

Antisocial Associates: These deal with family as well as extra-familial associates as one of the most significant risk indicators of recidivism.

Anger: An assessment of the offender's reaction to anger assists in the identification of treatment needs but is not included in the SAQ's total score because of the controversial relationship between anger and recidivism. In this regard, research (Corapçioğlu & Erdoğan, 2004) demonstrates a higher incidence of anger in offenders with criminal recidivism.

Approximately half of the 72 items incorporated into the SAQ, focus on dynamic risk factors or criminogenic needs (i.e., employment, peer relationships, and substance abuse) that may increase or diminish their risk (Towl et al., 2008). Static risk factors are historical in nature that cannot be changed. However, significant static predictors of the long-term risk of violent recidivism, are factors such as the “early age of onset of violent behavior, the incidence of past violent behaviors; history of childhood behavioral problems such as enuresis, pyromania, cruelty to animals, hyperactivity, stealing, and lying; child-rearing practices such as harsh or erratic parental discipline; cruel, passive, or neglecting parental attitude or exposure to parental aggression; and trait characteristics such as psychopathy” (Loza & Dhaliwal, 2005, p. 189).

Dynamic predictors, which are amenable to change, are indicators of treatment needs that can reduce the risk of violent recidivism, such as antisocial feelings, attitudes, and beliefs, that “are considered central factors to major theories of criminality and prediction of violence” (Loza & Dhaliwal, 2005, p. 189). Other significant dynamic predictors are “negative social ties in the community (instability of interpersonal relationships, negative peer associates); poor educational and employment achievement; substance abuse; poor coping skills and mechanisms to address stressors; high-risk situational factors such as availability of means to commit violence (e.g., weapons) and availability of a potential victim” (Loza & Dhaliwal, 2005, p. 189).

It is reiterated by Williams et al. (2017) that although risk prediction is a highly critical area of research, a combination of risk prediction and risk reduction efforts is more beneficial than risk prediction on its own. Therefore, instruments with an emphasis on dynamic risk factors that may assist in risk reduction and rehabilitative objectives, such as the SAQ, “are among the most highly valued features of risk/need instruments” (Williams et al., 2017, p. 11).

Based on the individual's risk level, case management professionals are provided with dynamic indicators that may be used in follow-up cognitive therapy sessions in relation to antisocial feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and conduct. The focus on content areas related to violent recidivism, adds specific significance to the SAQ, while endorsement of some of the SAQ's statements could assist clinicians in the diagnoses of Antisocial Personality Disorder, a history of conduct disorder, and substance abuse (Loza et al., 2007).

Loza (2018) motivates the application of the SAQ over other assessments on the basis that the SAQ is a self-report measure and, as such, would not be subjected to interviewers’ biases. The SAQ is more convenient and economical to use. The instructions are simple and can be given by paraprofessionals, and interpretation of the results is straightforward, requiring minimal professional time and training.

A synthesis of the pluri-dimensional (i.e., several dimensions) purposes of the SAQ, (cf. Loza, 2018, p. 166), is

prediction of post-release adjustments such as violent and nonviolent recidivism, parole violations, and probability of being convicted of a new offense;

prediction of institutional adjustment, and the assignment of offenders to institutional security levels;

assignment of offenders to treatment programs such as substance abuse, anger management, cognitive skills, and programs dealing with antisocial attitudes, antisocial behavior, antisocial feelings, antisocial beliefs, insight, and similar types of programs;

provision of information that may assist with diagnosing substance abuse, conduct problems, and antisocial personality disorder; and

and as a pre- and post-treatment measure to assess the effect of treatment and determine changes in offenders’ attitude, and attributions, particularly those related to criminal tendencies.

Multiple studies have demonstrated the validity and utility value of the SAQ with male offenders (Andreu-Rodriguez et al., 2016; Loza et al., 2004). However, very little research has been done with the SAQ and female offenders, save for the work of Loza et al. (2005), involving 91 female offenders from Pennsylvania (USA) and 183 offenders from Singapore (Table 1).

Table 1.

Demographics of the Participants (N = 284).

Variable	n	%	Cumulative %
Race group
Asian	6	2.1	2.1
Black	121	42.6	44.7
Colored	89	31.3	76.0
White	68	24.0	100.0
Age category (years)
20–29	98	34.5	34.5
30–39	114	40.1	74.6
≥40	72	25.4	100.0
Total	284	100.0

Note. Refers to the demographic designation of a person of mixed race according to the national population census and is not a derogatory term in the local context.

In like manner, the SAQ identifies South African female offenders’ level of risk (low, low moderate, high moderate, and high), and it determines the respondents’ treatment needs, and their probability for future violent and nonviolent recidivism. Elevated scores in any of the subscales are indicators of risk factors, but more importantly, treatment requirements. Each subscale has a calculated range of scores. An elevated score exceeds the median score in any particular subscale (Loza, 2018).

Procedure

Ethical approval was obtained from the Department of Correctional Services (DCS) and the Unisa College Research Ethics Review Committee. The authors and an experienced researcher who previously worked in the correctional milieu and is skilled to work with correctional clients, were briefed on the administration of the SAQ. Correctional centers in three provinces (Gauteng, The Free State, and Western Cape) were visited and available incarcerated offenders were invited to participate in the study (Table 2).

Table 2.

Crimes for Which the Respondents are Serving Sentences (N = 284).

Crime Category	n	%
Theft	89	27.9
Drug-related offences	57	17.9
Murder/attempted murder	50	15.7
Fraud	44	13.8
Burglary	13	4.1
Aggravated robbery	12	3.8
Aggravated assault	11	3.4
Illegal possession of firearm and ammunition	9	2.8
Robbery	8	2.5
Culpable homicide	5	1.6
Rape	5	1.6
Kidnapping	4	1.3
Child abuse	3	0.9
Indecent assault	2	0.6
Assault common	2	0.6
Arson	2	0.6
Theft of motor vehicles	1	0.3
Marine related offences	1	0.3
Witchcraft	1	0.3
Total	319	100

Inclusion criteria were literacy in English and voluntary participation in the group sessions. Participants were made aware of their individual right to choose to participate in the study and were guaranteed anonymity. No promises for any rewards were made to any participant and it was explained that they would derive no direct benefits as a result of their participation in the project. The facilitator administering the SAQ explained the purpose of the research, after which each participant completed the SAQ individually. All ethical principles were observed and adhered to by gaining informed consent, encouraging voluntary participation, assuring anonymity and privacy, showing respect to all participants, and ensuring that no physical harm (i.e., physical discomfort and pain due to health conditions) and distress (i.e., mental harm, emotional distress, and embarrassment), comes to the participants (see Fouché et al., 2021).

The completed questionnaires were verified for completeness by the authors who also interpreted the outcomes prior to electronic capturing.

Results

Table 3 presents the comparative antisocial personality problems (33.1%) as a primary risk, combined with (comorbid) substance abuse (29.9%), and uncontrolled anger (24.6%)¹. More than 21% (21.5%) of participants presented elevated scores in the criminal history and 13% in the criminal tendencies subscales. The percentages of participants who emerged at risk due to conduct problems were 10.6% and antisocial associates were 5.3%.

Table 3.

Comparative Coefficient Alpha, Total Scale/Subscale, and Subscale/Subscale Correlations: Pennsylvania, Singapore and South Africa.

Subscales	CT	AP	CP	CH	AD	AS
Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa Criminal Tendencies (CT) Antisocial personality problems (AP) Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa Conduct problems (CP) Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa Criminal History (CH) Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa Alcohol and Drugs (AD) Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa Antisocial Associates (AS) Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa SAQ Total Pennsylvania Singapore South Africa	.76 .74 .70 - .31^a .40^a .48^a .41^a .49^a .60^a .15^a .45^a .42^a .29^a .44^a .53^a .07 .30^a .44^a .69^a .77^a .84^a	.58 .52 .44 .76^a .71^a .68^a .27^a .38^a .25^a . 42^a .57^a .50^a .30^a .26^a .38^a .75^a .73^a .70^a	.86 .84 .87 .31^a .46^a .46^a .49^a .55^a .59^a .40^a .32^a .48^a .88^a .84^a .88^a	.48 .64 .70 .34^a .54^a .45^a .40^a .41^a .30^a .44^a .67^a .58^a	.73 .81 .82 .24^a .47^a .38^a .67^a .78^a .76^a	.11 .31 .21 .44^a . 51^a .57^a

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. Subscales: CT = Criminal Tendencies; AP = Antisocial Personality Problems; CP = Conduct Problems; CH = Criminal History; AD = Alcohol/Drugs; AS = Antisocial Associates.

Based on the risk levels of the SAQ, 18.7% of the research participants were classified as low risk, 48.9% as low moderate risk, 26.4% as high moderate, and 6% as high risk. As opposed to male offenders of whom 60.4% measured in the high moderate or high probability levels (Prinsloo, 2021), 67.6% of the female participants measured in the low moderate or low probability levels.

Table 3 presents the comparative coefficient alpha, total scale/subscale, and subscale/subscale correlations from the SAQ from previous studies (see Loza et al., 2005), to assess its reliability and validity for the use with female offenders from different countries, cultural contexts, and ethnic backgrounds.

The coefficient alpha for the total SAQ was.92 while the coefficient alphas for the SAQ subscales compared favorably with the Pennsylvania and Singapore studies. The coefficient alphas for the Conduct Problems, Criminal History, and Alcohol and Drugs subscales, exceeded the scores of the Pennsylvania and Singapore studies while the coefficient for the Criminal Tendencies subscale measured comparable. As in the instances of the Pennsylvania and Singapore studies, most of the coefficient alphas for the SAQ subscales were above .50 (66.7%) and approximately 80% (83%) of the subscale correlations were.30 or higher. For our South African participants, all the items-subscale correlation, with one exception, were above.30 or above. The alpha for the Antisocial Associates is low, as is the case with previous studies and this might be contributed to the low number of participants included in this scale.

Pearson product-moment correlation statistics were used to measure the strength and direction of statistical relationships between the subscales. Most of the inter-subscale correlations are statistically significant and mostly of moderate (r = 0.3 to 0.5) or large strength (r = 0.5 to 1.0) (cf. Laerd Statistics, 2018). With a single exception, all the items-subscale correlations were 0.30 and above.

In their responses which form part of the SAQ, 88 (31%) participants admitted that they have previously been convicted of a crime and 80 (28.2%) participants confirmed that they served a custodial sentence before and are therefore recidivists. The risk levels of the recidivist participants were subsequently analyzed and compared to the risk levels of the remaining participants.

Table 4 indicates that in terms of the overall risk index (based on previously convicted and served sentence risk levels) for the whole research group, based on the total score of the SAQ, more than two-thirds of the participants were considered low and moderate low risk (67.6%), compared with moderately high and high risk (32.4%). Contrary to this, the proportional moderately high risk (44.3%) and high risk (15.9%) levels of the participants who have been previously convicted of a crime, emerged as 60.2%. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistics was used to measure the significance of response variation within and between the participants, based on the risk categories of participants who committed crimes before. ANOVA analysis confirmed the observed differences to be statistically significant [F (3, 280) = 24.071, p = 001]. Similarly, the probability of those participants who previously served a custodial service to be of moderately high (45%) or high risk (17.5%), measured 62.4%, with significant statistical differences between the various groups [F (3, 280) = 23.832, p = 001]. Table 4 also indicated that of those participants who were considered as high risk, 82.4% of the participants have been convicted of a crime previously and/or previously served a custodial sentence.

Table 4.

A Comparative Analysis of the Risk index of Recidivist Participants.

	Low	Moderately Low	Moderately High	High	Total
Overall risk level	18.7	48.9	26.4	6.0	100.0
Previously convicted	2.3	37.5	44.3	15.9	100.0
Risk level	3.8	23.7	52.0	82.4	31.0
Served sentence	3.8	33.8	45.0	17.5	100.0
Risk level	5.7	19.4	48.0	82.4	28.2

Finally, the efficacy of the SAQ was investigated with the South African multicultural and ethnic population groups in mind. Because of the limited number of Asian participants, they were grouped with the White participants. The means and standard deviations of the Black, Colored, and Asian/White groups based on the SAQ total score indicated no significant differences between the responses of the various groups [F (50, 233) = 1.03, p = 0.430].

Discussion

As a recommendation of their research, Loza et al. (2005) proposed additional research to examine the psychometric properties of the SAQ with female offenders from different countries, with diverse ethnic backgrounds, and different forensic and correctional settings. The SAQ has proved to be applicable, effective, and usable with reliable and valid findings to the South African female offender population. This research successfully proved that the SAQ is applicable, reliable, and valid for female offenders within the multicultural South African context. Significant scores for conduct problems, criminal histories, and substance abuse were found as risk indicators for possible reoffending behavior. This research underlines the gap between male and female research, but the results proved the applicability of the SAQ as equivalent to female offenders as is the case with male offenders.

The results of this study support those of Loza et al. (2005) in that the SAQ is a reliable measure for use with offenders from different countries and different ethnic backgrounds. The statistics generated by this research compare well with and are consistent with previous results from Pennsylvania and Singapore. The results follow the same statistical trends as the international measures, despite the unique multicultural context of South Africa. The mean scores and standard deviations confirm consistency in the responses of the various cultural and/or ethnical groups without statistically significant differences. The efficacy of the SAQ has also been demonstrated in terms of risk prediction, criminogenic needs identification, and institutional placement, which are of operational significance.

Similar research is needed in the African continent to assist and guide with accurate risk assessment for therapy, rehabilitation and for risk indication for female offenders.

Limitations

The research participants comprised a non-probability (purposive) sample (cf. Palinkas et al., 2015), and the wider application of the results of this study is limited, and therefore cannot be generalized beyond the scope of the research group in question.

The researchers did not have access to the personal information of the offenders and no previous offenses could be confirmed. This made the distinction between perpetrators of violence and nonviolent offenders untrustworthy as far as their offending histories are concerned and could not be used as a basis to explore the concurrent validity of the SAQ for this study.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article

ORCID iDs

Anni Hesselink

Johan Prinsloo

Notes

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