Work engagement,organizational embeddedness,and life satisfaction among frontline employees of star-rated hotels in Ghana

Abstract

To expand the literature on embeddedness and life satisfaction, the present study examines the mediating role of work engagement in the relationship between organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction among hotel employees in Ghana. Multi-wave data were conveniently collected from 274 employees working as full timers in selected rated hotels in Accra. Structural equation modeling results demonstrated that organizational embeddedness positively influenced life satisfaction and links positively affected life satisfaction. Moreover, work engagement mediated the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction nexus. Lastly, the results showed that work engagement mediated the effects of link and fit on life satisfaction. Managers of hotels should provide employees who offer frontline services with several important organizational resources such as fit and links to enhance their work engagement and therefore augment their satisfaction with life.

Keywords

Organizational embeddedness work engagement life satisfaction hotel industry Ghana

Introduction

Job embeddedness has gained prominence in organizational behavior literature because of its ability to use work and non-work factors to explain increased variance in important work outcomes, such as turnover, affective commitment, citizenship behavior, and task performance (e.g., Ampofo, 2020; Lee et al., 2004). Past research has also shown that job embeddedness has the ability to explicate significant variance in non-work outcomes, including life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2017). Although the job embeddedness literature abounds in the hotel industry (Ampofo 2020; Ferreira et al., 2017; Robinson et al., 2014), little is known about how job embeddedness relates to life satisfaction in the industry (Ampofo et al., 2021). Moreover, just innovative work behavior and job satisfaction have been identified as mediators in the association between job embeddedness and life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2018, 2021). The motivation of this research is to explore additional mediators in the job embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship. In this regard, the present study heeds to the call to examine work engagement as a potential mediator in the relationship (Ampofo et al., 2021). This is worth examining because embeddedness may spillover into life satisfaction through important work attitudes, such as work engagement.

In attempt to redress the research limitation, the current study employs the conservation of resources (COR) theory to first elucidate the relationship between job embeddedness and life satisfaction in the hotel industry. This is important since such as relationship is yet to be extended to the hotel industry. To enhance organizational well-being, hotels need employees who feel happy and satisfied with life (Ampofo et al., 2017). It is also the responsibility of hotel managers to enhance the well-being of key stakeholders such as employees (Carroll, 1999). Second, the study explicates whether work engagement mediates the relationship between job embeddedness and life satisfaction. The COR theory suggests that people with greater resources are less susceptible to resource forfeiture and more proficient to obtain extra resources (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Embedded employees are considered as individuals with ample resources (Zhang et al., 2019). Employees with adequate resources may engage in their work, which may in turn influence their life satisfaction (Ampofo, 2020; Bakker and Demerouti, 2016).

This article contributes to research in at least three ways. First, because job embeddedness needs to be tailored to a specific context to make it more generalizable and practically significant (Ramesh and Gelfand, 2010), this research expands existing understanding on the effects of job embeddedness and its dimensions on life satisfaction to the hotel industry. This study is necessary because of the critical role that frontline employees play in building and strengthening good connections between the hotel and customers (Lee, 2016; Wireko-Gyebi et al., 2017). In addition, the well-being of frontline employees is critical for hotel organizations to remain relevant in the increasingly tense competition characterizing the hotel industry in Ghana. Research has revealed that individuals who feel satisfied with their lives display higher job satisfaction, and lower turnover intentions and burnout (Haar and Roche, 2010).

Second, prior studies have shown that embedded employees are engaged at work, and engaged employees show greater satisfaction with life (Ampofo, 2021; Meynhardt et al., 2020). Nonetheless, research on work engagement as a mediator in the relationship between job embeddedness and life satisfaction is ignored. The current study answers the call to explore work engagement as a mechanism through which job embeddedness influences life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2018). The study selected work engagement as a mediator since frontline hotel employees may work in variable shift duties, work for long working hours, work on weekends and public holidays, and engage in constant interactions with quests, all of which can be very stressful (Wireko-Gyebi et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2020).

Third, although previous research has established the relationship between sub-dimension of job embeddedness and work and non-work outcomes (e.g., Ampofo et al., 2017; Robinson et al., 2014), little is known about mediating variables in the relationships. Ampofo et al. (2018) found that job satisfaction and work engagement mediated the effects of organizational dimensions of links, sacrifice and fit on affective commitment. To the best of our knowledge, no study has examined mechanism(s) through which sub-dimensions of job embeddedness predict life satisfaction. This study attempts to fill this gap because the sub-dimensions of job embeddedness have unique value which tends to have different influence on employees’ attitudes (Kiazad et al., 2014).

Theory and hypothesis development

The COR theory

As indicated earlier, the study relies on COR theory to offer guidance for the proposed relationships. The whole idea of the COR theory is premised on the concept of resources, which is broadly defined as anything, such as seniority, money, and social aplomb, that individuals value and help them to achieve their goals (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll et al., 2018). Resources in the hotel industry include social support from coworkers and supervisor, performance feedback, training, and salary (Karatepe and Olugbade, 2009; Yavas et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2016). The COR theory pivots on the fundamental motivational principle that people (and groups) attempt to protect present resources and acquire further resources (Hobfoll, 2001). Individuals go through stressful experiences when their resources are actually forfeited, threatened, or cannot be regained after investment (Hobfoll, 2001). Besides their use of valued resources as a response to stress, individuals employ key resources to create a reservoir of sustaining resources to meet future demands (Hobfoll et al., 2018). The COR theory is important for the study because embeddedness signifies resource abundance, and resources are important for work engagement and life satisfaction (Ampofo, 2021; Zhang et al., 2019).

Life satisfaction

Life satisfaction, which represents the cognitive evaluation of a person’s life in entirety, is often considered from two views (Erdogan et al., 2012; Karatepe and Baddar, 2006). The first is the top-down view, which signifies that life satisfaction is a function of steady traits, for example, self-esteem, and conscientiousness. The second is the bottom-up view, which considers life satisfaction as a multifaceted function of satisfaction with several distinct but interrelated life domains, for example, family, and work. In line with earlier research (Ampofo et al., 2017), the current study adopts the bottom-up approach since work is a critical domain in an individual’s life (Erdogan et al., 2012; Plouffe and Tremblay, 2017). The study selected life satisfaction as an outcome variable in order to ascertain how work factors, including embeddedness and work engagement spillover into life satisfaction. Moreover, employees with greater work resources are likely to create resource caravans, which may affect their life satisfaction (Bouzari and Karatepe, 2020).

Organizational embeddedness

Job embeddedness denotes a collection of influences that keep individuals in their job (Mitchell et al., 2001). These influences that embed individuals in their job emanate from the work organization and residential community. Thus, Mitchell et al. (2001) theorize two dimensions of job embeddedness; organizational embeddedness (i.e., work factors that keep people in their jobs) and community embeddedness (non-work factors that keep individuals in their jobs). The current study focuses only on organizational embeddedness because work factors largely affect employee work engagement and life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2018). According to Mitchell et al. (2001), organizational embeddedness has three sub-dimensions: fit, links, and sacrifices. “Fit” reflects an individual’s perceived compatibility or comfort with the work organization. “Links” represents the formal and informal ties that an employee has with individuals or groups in the organization. “Sacrifice” denotes the perceived loss of benefits that an employee is likely to incur by leaving the organization (Mitchell et al., 2001). The benefits that are sacrificed include psychological benefits (e.g., leaving a senior position, or loss of organizational support) and material benefits (e.g., forfeiture of health benefits or pensions benefits). Embedded employees possess ample work resources since link represents relational resource, fit denotes a sense of belonging resource, and sacrifice represents the primacy of resource loss (Zhang et al., 2019). From the perspective of Kiazad et al. (2014), links and fit are resources with instrumental value (i.e., resources that enable individuals to obtain additional resources, e.g., supervisor support, job-relevant skills), while sacrifice represents intrinsic resource (resources that are desired ends in themselves and have little utility to acquire other resources, e.g., salary, bonuses, and allowances). In accordance with COR theory, embedded employees are more likely to obtain more work resources, and less exposed to resource forfeiture (Hobfoll et al., 2018).

Work engagement

Schaufeli et al. (2002) defined work engagement as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is typified by dedication, vigor and absorption. Dedicated individuals show strong work involvement along with feelings of excitement, pride, passion, keenness, significance, and inspiration. Individuals with vigor have higher levels of physical energy, and attend to their job with persistence and readiness to invest efforts. Employees who are absorbed in their work are fully focused and highly immersed in their work without realizing that time passes speedily, making it difficult for them to detach themselves from work. Engaged employees have been found to demonstrate increased innovative work behavior, reduced turnover intention, augmented citizenship behaviors, and heightened job satisfaction (Afsar et al., 2020; Ibrahim et al., 2019; Luu, 2019; Rai and Maheshwari, 2021). Research suggests work resources are significant predictors of work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2008; Putra et al., 2017). Thus, employees are likely to protect and acquire important work resources to enhance their engagement at work.

Organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction

Empirical evidence suggests that organizational embeddedness is positively related to life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2017). However, knowledge on job embeddedness and life satisfaction is yet to be extended to the hotel industry, which this study aims to achieve. Hotels in Ghana provide employees with several work resources, including pay, bonus, and social support, which may increase employees’ life satisfaction. Because individuals in possession of greater resources are more capable of gaining more resources and less exposed to resource loss (Hobfoll et al., 2018), embedded frontline employees may have their pool of work resources increased, and become less stressful in the workplace. When frontline employees have greater accumulated resources in the hotel organization, they are more likely to report higher satisfaction with life (Ampofo et al., 2017). It is hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 1. Organizational embeddedness is positively related to frontline hotel employees’ life satisfaction.

Organizational embeddedness dimensions and life satisfaction

It is also important to understand how the dimensions of organizational embeddedness might influence life satisfaction. Given the unique predictive power of organizational embeddedness dimensions (Ampofo, 2021; Robinson et al., 2014), it is expected that links, fit, and sacrifice will separately predict life satisfaction. Ampofo et al.’s (2017) study revealed that fit and sacrifice (but not links) were positively related to life satisfaction. Because individuals from collectivistic backgrounds prioritize relationship over work (Hofstede, 2001), hotel employees in Ghana (highly ranked collectivistic country) may report increased life satisfaction. Given their better understanding of the organization, employees who perceive the organization as a good fit are unlikely to complete work with stress, thereby enhancing their life satisfaction (Kiazad et al., 2014). In relation to COR theory, employees who have acquired more instrumental resources (e.g., links and fit) are well placed to acquire additional organizational resources, creating resource caravans, to augment their life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2017; Hobfoll et al., 2018). Those employees are more likely to obtain new work resources that may enhance their work happiness, which may spillover into life satisfaction. Because organization-provided benefits are desired ends in themselves (Kiazad et al., 2014), frontline hotel employees who have acquired those benefits (e.g., pay, allowance, and bonus), regardless of the quantity, may be satisfied with their lives. Thus, it is hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 2

Links, fit, and sacrifice are positively related to frontline hotel employees’ life satisfaction.

Mediating role of work engagement

Work engagement is considered as a stressful condition since work demands consume one’s energy and activate stress (Kulikowski and Sedlak, 2020). However, employees with sufficient resources are unlikely to withdraw from work engagement because resourceful jobs (e.g., coworker support and bonuses) often engender work engagement (Halbesleben, 2010). The present study views organizational embeddedness as a job resource since it comprises abundant resources which may help individuals meet demands of their work, serve as a motivational process to individuals, and facilitate completion of their work tasks (Kulikowski and Sedlak, 2020; Kwon and Kim, 2020). According to COR theory, embedded employees are unlikely to forfeit their current work resources and may be in an advantageous position to gain more work resources, thereby enhancing their work engagement (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Prior research has established that organizational embeddedness enhanced hotel employees’ work engagement (Ampofo, 2020). In turn, engaged employees may be satisfied with their lives because their copious organizational resources may put them in a stressful situation (Demerouti et al., 2001). Past studies have demonstrated that work engagement enhanced life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees (Ampofo, 2020; Meynhardt et al., 2020). In line with the arguments above, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 3

Work engagement mediates the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship.

Prior research has shown that links, fit, and sacrifice are unique predictors of life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2017). However, expanding knowledge on organizational dimensions and life satisfaction through mediators is scare. To fill this gap in literature, in this subsection, we argue that links, fit, and sacrifice will influence life satisfaction through the mechanism of work engagement. Consistent with the COR theory, work engagement may mediate the relationship between organizational links and life satisfaction because employees with many connections in the hotel organization may receive social support from coworkers and supervisors, which may enhance their work engagement (Kiazad et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2021; Quratulain and Al-Hawari, 2021). For example, a front-desk agent may assist a porter to transport the luggage of hotel guests to their rooms. Additionally, a front-desk agent may receive relevant skills advice from his or her supervisor on how to perform tasks efficiently. This may include taking reservations, canceling reservations, and keeping the foyer and front-desk area sparkling and presentable. This suggests that frontline hotel employees who receive social support from colleagues and supervisors may have extra personal resources, including time and energy, to engage actively more at work. Empirical evidence suggests that employees who received social support from their coworkers and supervisors reported high levels of work engagement (Ibrahim et al., 2019; Vera et al., 2016). In turn, studies have demonstrated that work engagement enhanced life satisfaction (Ampofo, 2020; Meynhardt et al., 2020). Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 4

Work engagement mediates the relationship between links and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees.

Employees who perceive fit with the hotel organization may have a good understanding of their work and have the relevant skills to perform their work, such that they may feel positive and energized about their work (Hobfoll, 2001; Kiazad et al., 2014). For example, a good-fitted front-desk agent may know how to take and cancel reservations by phone, and check guests in and out of the hotel. In addition, organization-fitted individuals may have a good understanding of hotel needs and priorities, which may affect their level of engagement at work (Edwards and Cable, 2009). Furthermore, employees who perceive fit with the hotel organization are likely to develop positive emotions about the hotel, which may influence how they engage in their work (Malhotra et al., 2020). In accordance with the COR theory, frontline employees who perceive fit with the hotel organization are likely to invest personal resources like energy in their work (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Research has demonstrated that employees who perceived a match between their individual goals and the organizational goals reported higher work engagement (Memon et al., 2018). As indicated earlier, employees who are engaged at work reported higher life satisfaction (Ampofo, 2021; Meynhardt et al., 2020). Accordingly, it is hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 5

Work engagement mediates the relationship between fit and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees.

Given that sacrifice has intrinsic value, employees with greater sacrifices in the organization are likely to engage themselves at work in order to protect those resources (Hobfoll, 2001; Kiazad et al., 2014). As suggested earlier, hotel jobs offer several rewards including salary, allowance, and bonus. Consistent with the COR theory, benefits are of intrinsic value to individuals. That is, they are the ends that individuals anticipate to obtain in the organization (Kiazad et al., 2014). Therefore, frontline employees with greater benefits in the hotel are likely to demonstrate higher work engagement. Earlier studies have found that rewards enhanced employees’ work engagement (e.g., Ghosh et al., 2016; Karatepe, 2013). In turn, research suggests that work engagement increased life satisfaction among hotel frontline employees (Ampofo, 2021; Meynhardt et al., 2020). In accordance with the foregoing arguments, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 6

Work engagement mediates the relationship between sacrifice and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees.

Conceptual model

Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual model. The model shows organizational embeddedness and its three dimensions. It further illustrates that organizational embeddedness and its dimensions affect life satisfaction. In addition, the model shows that organizational embeddedness predicts life satisfaction through work engagement. Similarly, the model depicts that work engagement is the mechanism through which links, fit, and sacrifice influence life satisfaction. Finally, there model proposes job satisfaction, gender, and age as control variables. The underlying logic of the model is that embedded individuals are likely to obtain additional resources, thereby creating resource caravans to enhance their work engagement and life satisfaction.

Figure 1.

Conceptual model.

Method

Participants and procedures

The current study employed a quantitative research design. Data were gathered from frontline employees who worked as full timers in rated hotels in Accra in Ghana. These include front-desk agents, bartenders, waiters, and bell attendants. Management of seven 4-star and three 5-star hotels in Accra were contacted to seek permission for data collection. These were the 10 top luxurious service provider and highly famed hotels in the national capital of Ghana in 2019. Of 10 selected star-rated hotels in Accra, permission for data collection was obtained for four 4-star and one 5-star hotels. These hotels had 472 frontline full-time employees. Questionnaire was used the main instrument used to collect data in the study. A sealed envelope which contained a cover letter and the questionnaire was administered to each participant. Completed questionnaires were returned in sealed envelope to the researchers. Because hotel employees have unpredictable and irregular working hours and shift systems (Amissah et al., 2016), convenience sampling procedure was utilized to gather data in this study.

Common method bias (CMB) effects were mitigated in the study by employing two surveys at two separate periods with a 5-month time lag. Codes were assigned to the two times questionnaires in order to track return and participants’ responses. In August 2019, we measured participants’ demographic characteristics and their views on organizational embeddedness. In February 2020, we assessed participants’ opinions on life satisfaction, work engagement, and job satisfaction. Threats of CMB were further decreased by asking participants not to indicate anything that might reveal their identity on the questionnaire. Participants were further assured that the study was conducted for academic reasons.

Few amendments were made after a 2-week time lag pre-test on 20 frontline employees who were drawn from four sectors, that is, hospitals, hotels, universities and banks. These include increasing the font size for clear reading, correcting a few typographical errors in the surveys. Time one of the main study had 364 participants, representing 77%. Of 364 participants, Time two had 276 completed and returned questionnaires, which denotes 76%. Two of the Time two questionnaires were discarded because of inadequate variation in responses. The final sample comprised 274 participants of whom 193 were frontline employees of the 4-star hotels and 81 were frontline employees of the 5-star hotel. Additionally, of 274 participants, about 31% were under 30 years, 45% were between 30 and 40 years, 17% were between 41 and 50 years, and 8% between 51 and 60 years. About 64% of the participants were male, while 63% had married. Finally, about 65%, 23%, and 13% had obtained senior high school certificates, Bachelor degrees, and Master degrees, respectively.

Measures

Life satisfaction: Five items from Diener et al. (1985) was employed to measure life satisfaction. These items include: “In most ways my life is close to my ideal,” and “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.” Response options for life satisfaction range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The current study reported Cronbach’s α score of 0.794.

Organizational embeddedness: Holtom et al.’s (2006) nine items were used to measure organizational embeddedness. The items include “If I stay with my organization, I will be able to achieve most of my goals” (fit), “I am a member of an effective work group” (links), and “The prospects for continuing employment with this organization are excellent” (sacrifice). Response options for organizational embeddedness range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The present study recorded α reliability of 0.869 for organizational embeddedness.

Work engagement: Schaufeli et al.’s (2006) nine-item Utrecht Work and Engagement scale was used to measure work engagement. Sample items are “At my work, I feel bursting with energy” (vigor), “I am enthusiastic about my job” (dedication), and “I am immersed in my work” (absorption). A seven-point Likert scale where 0 = never and 7 = always was employed. The current study record Cronbach’ α score of 0.886.

Control variables: Job satisfaction, gender and age were used as control variables in the study because of their effects on employee life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2018; Moksnes and Espnes, 2013). Job satisfaction was assessed with three items used by Mitchell et al. (2001). Sample item includes: “I am satisfied with my job.” Response options for job satisfaction range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The study reported α reliability of 0.874 for job satisfaction. Moreover, gender was coded as 1 (male) and 2 (female), while age was coded as 1 (under 30 years), 2 (30–40 years), 3 (41–50 years), and 4 (51–60 years).

Data analysis

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and AMOS were the main statistical tools used to analyze the data. Expected maximization method was used to replace data that were completely missing at random. The job satisfaction item “In general, I don’t like my job” was reversed scored. The assumptions of homoscedasticity and multicollinearity were not violated in the study. Furthermore, data were normally distributed (see Table 1). Structural equation modeling analysis was employed to test the hypotheses. Confirmatory factor analysis helped assess the goodness-of-fit of the hypothesized model, and the validity and reliabilities of the variables under study. Item parcels were created for organizational embeddedness, work engagement, and life satisfaction since the sample size was relatively small to the number of measurement items. Also, partial mediation model and full mediation model were estimated and compared to each other to determine which model had better fit statistics. In the current study, samples were bootstrapped to 5000, and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals was used for determining the mediation effect. Mediation effect was considered significant when upper bound and lower bound confidence intervals did not cross zero. Model fit was measured with the following indices: CMIN (χ²/df) < 0.05, CFI ≥ 0.90, TLI > 0.95, and RMSEA < 0.05. Common latent factor analysis was employed to test possible threats of CMB, and the results demonstrated that CMB was not a worry in the study.

Table 1.

Alternative factor models.

Factor models	Components	χ²	Df	χ²_dff	df _dff	CFI	TLI	RMSEA
Three-factor	LS, OE, and WE	23.798	16	—	—	.987	.976	.042
Two-factor	OE, and combined LS, and WENG	175.950	18	152.152^a	2	.728	.577	.179
One-factor	Combined OE, LS, and WENG	263.258	19	239.460^a	3	.579	.380	.217

^ap< .001 (two-tailed).

OE, organizational embeddedness; WENG, work engagement; LS, life satisfaction; CFI, comparative fit index; χ2, chi-square; df, degrees of freedom; dff, difference; TLI, Tucker Lewis index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.

Results

Results for CFA and α reliabilities are presented in Table 2. All constructs had the factor loadings their indicators above .50. The results demonstrate satisfactory convergent validity since average variance extracted (AVE) exceed .50, but are below composite reliabilities (Hair et al., 2010). The results further demonstrate satisfactory discriminant validity for two reasons: (1) AVEs exceed maximum shared variance and (2) square root of AVEs is above inter-construct associations (Hair et al., 2010). There was adequate construct reliability because α reliabilities for all constructs exceed .70 (Hair et al., 2010).

Table 2.

Reliabilities and CFA.

	Factor loadings	α	CR	AVE	MSV	SQRT of AVE
Organizational embeddedness	—	.869	.746	.506	.195	.707
Fit (My job utilizes my skills and talents well, I feel like I am a good match for my organization, and if I stay with my organization, I will be able to achieve most of my goals)	.669	—	—	—	—	—
Links (I am a member of an effective work group, I work closely with my co‐workers, and on the job, I interact frequently with my work group members)	.831	—	—	—	—	—
Sacrifice (I have a lot of freedom on this job to pursue my goals, I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job, and the prospects for continuing employment with this organization are excellent)	.601	—	—	—	—	—
Work engagement	—	.886	.761	.524	.195	.724
Vigor (At my work, I feel bursting with energy, at my job, I feel strong and vigorous, and when I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work)	.577	—	—	—	—	—
Dedication (I am enthusiastic about my job, my job inspires me, and I am proud of the work that I do)	.896	—	—	—	—	—
Absorption (I feel happy when I am working intensely, I am immersed in my work, and I get carried away when I am working)	.660	—	—	—	—	—
Life satisfaction	—	.844	.814	.691	.074	.831
LS1 (In most ways my life is close to my ideal, and the conditions of my life are excellent)	.944	—	—	—	—	—
LS2 (I am satisfied with my life, so far I have gotten the important things I want in life, and if I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing)	.700	—	—	—	—	—

α, Cronbach’s alpha; AVE, average variance extracted; MSV, maximum shared variance; CR, composite reliability; SQRT, square root.

Table 1 details results for alternative factor models. There were poor fit statistics for the one-factor model (χ² = 263.258, CFI = 0.579, TLI = 0.380, RMSEA = 0.217) and the two-factor model (χ² = 175.950, CFI = 0.728, TLI = 0.577, RMSEA = 0.179). However, the three-factor model showed acceptable fit statistics (χ² = 23.798, CFI = 0.987, TLI = 0.976, RMSEA = 0.042). The results also showed differences in chi-square and degree of freedom for the one-factor model (χ²_dff = 239.460, df _dff = 3) and the two-factor model (χ²_dff = 152.152, df _dff = 2) when they are juxtaposed with the three-factor model. Therefore, the current study employed the three-factor model for further analysis.

Table 3 presents descriptive and correlations results. All constructs showed normal distribution, as skewness and kurtosis did not exceed −2 and +2. Furthermore, organizational embeddedness was positively associated with work engagement and life satisfaction, while work engagement was correlated with life satisfaction. Links and fit were positively correlated with life satisfaction and work engagement. Sacrifice was positively correlated with work engagement, but was not associated with life satisfaction.

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics and correlations.

Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	I	II	III	5	6
1. Age	2.011	.887	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
2. Gender	1.361	.481	−.069	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
3. Job satisfaction	4.435	1.636	−.006	.087	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
4. OE	3.542	.816	−.024	.027	.288***	—	—	—	—	—	—
I. Links	3.862	.953	.070	−.039	.192**	—	—	—	—	—	—
II. Fit	3.521	1.085	−.089	.052	.290***	—	—	—	—	—	—
III. Sacrifice	3.245	1.033	−.027	.046	.200**	—	—	—	—	—	—
5. Work engagement	4.069	1.163	.010	.032	.347***	.269***	.211***	.294***	.134*	—	—
6. Life satisfaction	2.99	.975	.046	.101	.274***	.197**	.144*	.209**	.116	.176**	—
Skewness	—	—	.644	.581	−.672	−.957	−1.400	−.922	−.498	−.526	.089
Kurtosis	—	—	−.246	−1.675	−.504	.459	1.619	−.166	−.393	−.125	−.707

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001 (two-tailed). OE, organizational embeddedness; SD, standard deviation.

Table 4 demonstrates results for the direct relationships. Regarding organizational embeddedness, the results showed adequate fit statistics: χ² = 32.969; CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.996; RMSEA = 0.015. In addition, organizational embeddedness had a positive relationship with life satisfaction (β = 0.164, p < 0.05), which confirmed hypothesis 1. Concerning organizational embeddedness dimensions, the results demonstrated sufficient fit indices: χ² = 31.118; CFI = 0.996; TLI = 0.994; RMSEA = 0.020. A positive relationship was found between links and life satisfaction (β = 0.147, p < 0.05). However, fit (β = 0.047, p > 0.05) and sacrifice (β = −0.024, p > 0.05) were not significantly related to life satisfaction. Thus, hypothesis 2 was partially confirmed.

Table 4.

Direct effects of organizational embeddedness (and dimensions) on life satisfaction.

	Organizational embeddedness			Organizational embeddedness dimensions
	β	SE	t-value	β	SE	t-value
Gender	.073	.120	1.229	.074	.121	1.259
Age	.107	.067	1.736	.107	.067	1.772
Job satisfaction	.269	.040	3.835	.271	.041	4.071
Organizational embeddedness	.164	.113	2.334	—	—	—
Links	—	—	—	.147	.067	1.994
Fit	—	—	—	.047	.076	.642
Sacrifice	—	—	—	−.024	.064	−.360

Table 5 shows results for alternative structural models. The degrees of freedom in the full mediation models were greater than the degrees of freedom in the partial mediation models. The results further show insignificant chi-square differences between partial mediation models and full mediation models. Nonetheless, fit statistics recorded for the partially mediated models were better than for the fully mediated models. Accordingly, in the current study, we retained the partially mediated models.

Table 5.

Alternative structural models.

Relationship	Model	χ²	df	χ^2dff	df _dff	CFI	TLI	RMSEA
OE→WENG→LS	Partial mediation	72.557	57	—	—	.986	.980	.032
OE→WENG→LS	Full mediation	77.107	58	4.550	1	.982	.976	.035
Links, fit, and sacrifice→WENG→LS	Partial mediation	93.663	54	—	—	.963	.947	.052
Links, fit, and sacrifice→WENG→LS	Full mediation	98.276	57	4.614	3	.962	.948	.052

WENG, work engagement; LS, life satisfaction; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker Lewis index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation.

Figure 2 shows path estimates for partial mediation model for organizational embeddedness. The direct path from organizational embeddedness to work engagement (γ = 0.725, p < 0.001) and life satisfaction (γ = 0.550, p < 0.01) were significant and positive. Also, the direct path from work engagement to life satisfaction (β = −0.201, p < 0.05) was significant and negative. Moreover, the relationship between organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction was mediated by work engagement (β = −0.145, LBCI = −0.410, UBCI = −0.013), which confirmed hypothesis 3.

Figure 2.

Path estimates for partial mediation (for organizational embeddedness). Values in parenthesis = R².

Figure 3 presents details of results for the mediating effect of work engagement on dimensions of organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction. The direct paths from links to work engagement (γ = 0.328, p < 0.001) and life satisfaction (γ = 0.127, p < 0.01) were significant and positive. Additionally, the direct path from fit to work engagement (γ = 0.105, p < 0.05) was positive and significant. Moreover, there was a significant and positive direct path from work engagement to life satisfaction (β = 0.078, p < 0.05). Nonetheless, the direct paths from sacrifice to work engagement (γ = 0.029, p > 0.05) and life satisfaction (γ = −0.024, p > 0.05) were non-significant. Finally, the direct path from fit to life satisfaction (γ = 0.040, p > 0.05) was not significant. Furthermore, work engagement mediated the effect of links on life satisfaction (β = 0.026, LBCI = 0.003, UBCI = 0.054), which confirmed hypothesis 4. Also, work engagement mediated the effect of fit on life satisfaction (β = 0.008, LBCI = 0.001, UBCI = 0.023), which supported hypothesis 5. However, work engagement did not mediate the sacrifice-life satisfaction relationship (β = 0.002, LBCI = −0.003, UBCI = 0.013), which did not confirm hypothesis 6. A summary of results for the hypotheses is presented in Table 6.

Figure 3.

Path estimates for partial mediation (for dimensions of organizational embeddedness). Values in parenthesis = R². Note. *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001 (two-tailed).

Table 6.

A summary of results for hypotheses.

	Hypotheses	Support
Organizational embeddedness is positively related to frontline hotel employees’ life satisfaction	Hypothesis 1	Yes
Links, fit, and sacrifice are positively related to frontline hotel employees’ life satisfaction	Hypothesis 2	Partial
Work engagement mediates the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship	Hypothesis 3	Yes
Work engagement mediates the relationship between links and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees	Hypothesis 4	Yes
Work engagement mediates the relationship between fit and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees	Hypothesis 5	Yes
Work engagement mediates the relationship between sacrifice and life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees	Hypothesis 6	No

Discussion

The present study aimed at extending knowledge on organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction to the hotel industry and investigating the potential mediating role of work engagement in the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship. The results demonstrated that organizational embeddedness increased life satisfaction. In other words, frontline hotel employees with ample work resources tend to be satisfied with their lives. The result confirms the notion of COR theory that persons with sufficient resources are unlikely to experience stress due to their fewer susceptibility to resource forfeiture, thereby increasing their satisfaction with life (Hobfoll et al., 2018). The result supports Ampofo et al.’s (2017) finding that organizational embeddedness positively influenced employee life satisfaction.

Furthermore, it was found that “links” positively impacted life satisfaction among frontline employees in the hotel industry. Frontline employees tend to report increased life satisfaction when they have several social bonds in the hotel organization. The result is in consonance with the COR theory since instrumental resources increase an individual’s pool of resources in the hotel (Hobfoll, 2001; Kaizad et al., 2014). As their interpersonal ties in the hotel increase, frontline employees tend to receive significant social support in the hotel, which places them in a good position to acquire greater work resources to enhance their life satisfaction. This was unsurprising because individuals from collectivistic cultures, such as Ghana, put significant premium on relational ties (Czarnecka et al., 2020). However, it was found that sacrifice and fit did not impact frontline hotel employees’ life satisfaction. The generally high limited job offers in Ghana may influence hotel employees’ perception that employment is more striking than whether its associated benefits are appealing or not. In addition, the hotel industry in Ghana consists of several reluctant stayers (i.e., individuals who wish to leave their job but cannot leave). When job opportunities avail themselves, those employees are likely to leave, thus making it difficult for them to fit in the organization. The results did not fully support Ampofo et al.’s (2017) findings that sacrifice, links, and fit increased life satisfaction.

Additional results demonstrated that work engagement mediated the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction nexus. According to the COR theory, embedded employees likely employ their existing organizational resources (e.g., supervisor support and job-relevant skills) to acquire additional resources (e.g., self-efficacy, job autonomy, and pay rise) to enhance their work engagement. Embedded frontline hotel employees may experience less stress as they engage in their work, which in turn may enhance their life satisfaction. Embedded employees are likely to have sufficient work resources to engage in their work since they are unlikely to forfeit work resources given their greater current work resources (Ampofo, 2021; Bakker and Demerouti, 2016; Hobfoll et al., 2018). The result finds support with earlier studies that organizational embeddedness enhances work engagement (Ampofo, 2020), and work engagement increases life satisfaction (Ampofo, 2021; Meynhardt et al., 2020).

Finally, the results showed that work engagement played a mediating role in the relationships between organizational links and life satisfaction, and organizational fit and life satisfaction. The results are consistent with the COR perspective which suggests that employees who have instrumental resources are more capable of obtaining additional work resources to broaden their resources pool in the organization (Hobfoll et al., 2018; Kiazad et al., 2014). When employees’ instrumental resources increase, their ability to engage at work likely increases. The results that work engagement had higher mediating effect on the organizational links-life satisfaction nexus than on the organizational fit-life satisfaction relationship could be explained that collectivists generally put interpersonal connections foremost. However, the result that work engagement did not mediate the organizational sacrifice-life satisfaction nexus could be attributed to the relatively few and unattractive rewards typifying hotel work in Ghana.

Theoretical implications and suggestions for future research

The present study adds to the literature by extending knowledge on hotel employees’ organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction. In a recent empirical study, Ampofo et al. (2021) sampled employees from the hotel industry in Ghana and reported that job satisfaction mediated, while and perceptions of organizational politics moderated the nexus between organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction. However, Ampofo et al.’s (2021) study failed to extend knowledge on organizational embeddedness and its dimensions and life satisfaction to the hotel industry. The present study strengthens the argument that job embeddedness and its sub-dimensions are unique to a specific cultural context (Ramesh and Gelfand, 2010). The findings of the study revealed that organizational embeddedness and its dimensions of links and fit increased life satisfaction.

Moreover, there is a handful of research on the mediating mechanism in the relationship between organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2018, 2021). The current study responds to a recent appeal to investigate the possible mediating effect of work engagement on organizational embeddedness and life satisfaction (Ampofo et al., 2021). The study’s result adds the number of variables that have been found to mediate the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship. The study is also the first to identify a mediator in the dimensions of organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction relationship. This is important since each dimension has distinctive explanatory power in employee attitudes (Ampofo et al., 2017; Robinson et al., 2014).

The results emphasize the importance of COR theory in explaining organizational embeddedness because organizational embeddedness offers abundant work valued resources to frontline hotel employees, which may be essential for their work engagement and life satisfaction. The results suggest that frontline employees are satisfied with their lives because of their accrued resources in the organization. Embeddedness engenders work engagement and life satisfaction since individuals with greater resources are less likely to experience psychological stress emanating from resource loss (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Furthermore, the results suggest that resources with instrumental value, such as links and fit, are more likely to spillover into life satisfaction through work engagement. This is important because adequate work resources stimulate work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2016; Demerouti et al., 2001). According to the COR theory (Hobfoll, 2001), instrumental resources enhance individuals’ capacity to acquire more work resources, which may increase work engagement. Finally, embeddedness may activate a positive spillover into life satisfaction since embedded individuals are likely to safeguard against future resource loss and obtain new resources.

Future research could investigate other variables, including affective commitment and optimism, as potential mechanisms through which organizational embeddedness impact life satisfaction, Affectively committed employees may invest their personal resources (e.g., energy and expertize) into the organization, which may lead to resource gains to augment employees’ life satisfaction. Optimism is an important personal resource for employees. Because persons with abundant resources are capable of resource gains (Hobfoll et al., 2018), embedded employees are likely to demonstrate higher optimism. Optimistic hotel employees have been found to demonstrate higher life satisfaction (Bouzari and Karatepe, 2020).

Practical implications

Results of the study contribute to practice in several ways. Given the increasingly intense competition among star-rated hotels in Ghana (Ampofo, 2021), it is imperative for hotels to have the best of their frontline employees since their quality services contribute significantly to a client’s decision to return to the facility in the future or recommend it to other people. Therefore, managers of hotels should not overly concentrate on the organization’s well-being to the extent that less attention is paid to frontline employees’ well-being. Frontline employees who are satisfied with their lives are likely to come to work in a good mood and demonstrate high performance, which may be beneficial to the hotel organization (Zhao et al., 2016). To improve frontline employees’ life satisfaction, managers should concentrate on strategies that strengthen the embeddedness in the hotel. Managers that offer important resources to frontline employees tend to augment employees’ life satisfaction. To enhance life satisfaction, hotels should offer several attractive important resources to frontline employees, better salary, substantial bonuses and greater allowances. Given that poor salaries and work conditions typify the hotel industry, managers have to do more in order to get frontline employees satisfied with their lives.

Moreover, given the importance of relational resource to collectivists, managers of hotels could enhance the life satisfaction of frontline employees in the hotel industry in Ghana through strategies that strengthen social connections at work. This may include assigning teamwork, rewarding team successes, reducing formality, and organizing get together programs. Additionally, management should encourage the formation of welfare association among hotel employees in order to increase their mutual benefits during events, such as funeral ceremony (which is highly revered in the Ghanaian context) and marriage ceremony. Supervisors should draw closer to employees first when they realize that employees’ are in need for help, counsel, and direction. This might foster the social ties between supervisors and employees.

Furthermore, hotel managers can increase life satisfaction through organization fit strategies. For example, training programs that concentrate on strengthening frontline employees’ socialization tactics can increase life satisfaction. This is important, given frontline employees daily interaction with customers. Moreover, special educational packages (e.g., scholarship and study leave with pay) should be set up for frontline employees to help them acquire further knowledge in the field of hotel management, which is very essential given the competitive nature of the industry in Ghana.

Finally, managers of hotel organizations could increase frontline employees’ life satisfaction through work engagement. Hotel organizations can provide frontline employees with sufficient work resources, such as relevant-skill training and social support, to engage them at work. Additionally, hotels that show appreciation to frontline employees for their efforts to the organization are likely to augment the level of employees’ life satisfaction. Thus, managers should incentivize frontline employees who exhibit high levels of work engagement in the hotel organization.

Methodological limitations and suggestions for future research

Participants were selected in this study using convenience sampling technique. Future research could reduce sample bias and generalize results by choosing participants randomly. Also, in this study we drew sample from hotels that are rated 4- and 5-star in Accra. Future studies could include other categories of hotels, and hotels in other cities in Ghana. Furthermore, threats of CMB can be additionally mitigated in future studies. For example, future research could employ multiple sources for data collection. In addition, a three-point data collection procedure could be employed in future research, which means work engagement could be measured at a different time.

Conclusion

To sum up, the present research has advanced understanding on the organizational embeddedness-life satisfaction by testing the mediating effect of work engagement employing samples from star-rated hotels in Ghana. Drawing on the COR theory, the study’s results add significant value to the embeddedness literature by showing that organizational embeddedness (and links) predicted life satisfaction among frontline hotel employees. Moreover, the study found that organizational embeddedness (and links and fit) affected life satisfaction through work engagement.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Emmanuel Twumasi Ampofo

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