International Journal of Rural Management

In the smallholder value chains of maize, diversification of utilisation is an essential strategy towards enhancing the benefits drivable from the increase in maize production. This article identifies the contribution of maize-based products on poverty level among smallholder processors. The study, which was conducted in 30 rural communities in northern Nigeria, involved Focus Group Discussions and survey of 300 smallholder processors of maize-based products. Descriptive and inferential analyses were used. The results show that average annual profit among the interviewed smallholder processors of maize-based products was approximately N425,506 (about US$1,400). These processors faced several constraints which tend to keep them under poverty trap (vicious cycle of poverty). The result of the estimated two-step Tobit model shows that, with necessary interventions, profit from maize-based products has the capacity of keeping these processors out of poverty trap. The result indicates that as profit from maize-based products increases, the poverty probability index that household is not below poverty line of $1.90/day at 2011 purchase–power parity increases (p < 0.05). Thus, household poverty among rural smallholder processors of maize-based product could be reduced drastically through interventions targeted at mitigating the identified constraints.

Improving economic viability of Indian agriculture is contingent upon agri-environmental sustainability (AES). Objective assessment of environmental costs of agriculture is lacking in India. Unless internalise environmental impacts of agriculture will be borne by the society at large, in terms of depletion and degradation of water resources, land degradation and emissions of greenhouse gases, etc. To assess AES of Indian agriculture, the present article builds a comprehensive agri-environmental sustainability index (AESI) based on 40 agri-environmental indicators. The study captures both spatial and temporal aspects of AES by covering 17 major Indian states over 24 years (1990–1991 to 2013–2014). The estimated AESI scores are validated with outcome indicators (e.g., groundwater depletion, depletion of soil nutrients). The results show that states having higher score in Sustainable Irrigation Index are facing lower fall in groundwater level and there are negative correlations across sub-indices of AESI and macronutrient deficiencies in soil. An inverse relationship between AESI scores and agricultural intensity (as measured by average productivity of foodgrains in kilograms per hectare) is also observed. The study comes out with policy suggestions which could help to attain AES of Indian agriculture.

This study explores adaptation and farmer-led agricultural innovation strategies of smallholder farmers in Mbire District of Zimbabwe. Guided by explanatory sequential mixed methods design, 201 smallholder farmers were selected through multistage probability sampling technique and 18 participants were purposively selected. The instruments for the study included questionnaire and interview, which were analysed through basic descriptive and thematic analysis, respectively. The results show that smallholder farmers have adapted to climate change through multiple strategies including planting improved and drought resistant crops, cultivating fewer plots, mixed cropping, keeping more livestock, applying agrochemicals and local ecological knowledge as well as livelihood diversification, which are influenced by gender, education and farm size of respondents. The respondents have diversified their livelihood by engaging in brick moulding, sales of livestock, petty trade and dependence on remittance and social safety net as well as reduction in size and number of diets. The study identified financial, technological, social, institutional and information barriers to farmers’ adaptation. Farmer-led innovations identified by this study included planting Kanongo open pollinated variety of maize, pen fattening, over mulching, cassava cultivation and staggered planting. The implications of the results are teased out and policy recommendations are suggested.

Retail institutions offer economic and social benefits to the participants in a market. It is expected that in a less developed economy the social factors influence economic behaviour much more than in developed economies. The rural markets offer increased opportunities for the influence of social factors on economic transactions. This study examined the case of a rural periodic market. To ensure reliability the case study protocol questions reflected propositions developed on the research questions. It was expected that the participants would exhibit the influence of social relations in their market transactions. The results indicated that the economic benefits than social considerations influenced participant behaviour in the rural periodic market. Contrary to expectations not all consumers in a less developed economy exhibit social embeddedness in economic behaviour. Implications are for policymakers involved in planning and regulating rural markets. They need to take into consideration the differing behaviour of consumer groups in designing or regulating retail markets. This study examining the social embeddedness of buyer behaviour in the rural retail context of a less developed economy is presumably the first.

Increased competition coupled with commercialisation in the Indian microfinance sector has brought about many major transformations. From an impact-driven development programme, microfinance institutions (MFIs) today emerged as commercially oriented profit-making entities. In addition to bringing their commercial and social objectives into balance, MFIs today are striving for efficient level of operation. Efficiency in the level of operation of MFIs allows them to remain competitive and attain financial sustainability. However, it is also imperative for MFIs to remain socially committed towards the ultimate mission of reaching the poorest at the bottom of the pyramid. Hence, it is of research interest to see the trade-off between MFIs’ social objective of spreading outreach and at the same time remaining financially sustainable. Against this backdrop, this article is devoted to study the potential impact of competition and commercialisation on efficiency of MFIs in India and Bangladesh. The study is carried over 75 MFIs altogether over the period of 8 years from 2009 to 2016. The data have been collected from microfinance information exchange database. Efficiency is measured through technical efficiency (TE) scores as estimated under data envelopment analysis. In order to establish the association between competitions, which is estimated by the Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI), tobit regression is used. The study evidenced increasing level of competition in the sector over the years, but it is more pronounced in India as against Bangladesh. In order to analyse the trade-off, TE scores are separately estimated under both financial and social measures. TE score is found to be higher in case of social measures of efficiency as against financial efficiency. Further, under both the measures, competition is found to be having a significant impact on both financial and social efficiency.

School building is one of the vital activities in the realisation of educational justice in Iran, and given the effective cooperation and participation of educational non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with the government in this field, having a local model and overall framework appropriate to these organisations will certainly play a very important and influential role in realising and facilitating things. Therefore, this research aims to present a model for educational NGOs active in the field of school construction. The research approaches used were mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) and exploratory analysis. In the qualitative part of the research, the grounded theory method and purposive sampling were used, whereas in the quantitative part, the cross-sectional survey method and random stratified sampling were adopted. The data collection tool used for the qualitative part was semi-structured interviews, and for the quantitative part a researcher-made questionnaire with 117 questions was used. The validity of the questionnaire was established by the Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90. Results of the quantitative part confirmed the chi-square (χ²), goodness of fit, adjusted goodness of fit, mean deviation root and rounded squares of the qualitative part of the research. The results also show that the combination of the management’s characteristics and beliefs and organisational and social factors influences the management of educational NGOs. Also, the consequences of the utilisation of the management pattern for educational NGOs are divided into two: individual and social aspects. In terms of influencing the manner of management, contextual factors were influential in two environmental and policymaking aspects, and intervening factors were influential in two internal and external aspects. Furthermore, it was found that non-localised execution and implementation of patterns shall result in the failure of most management programmes throughout these organisations. As a result, the organization shall gain productivity and success if it manages educational NGOs with reliance on factors effective in paradigmatic model of grounded theory.

The current study aims to contextualise cohousing with a focus on analysing a traditional rural settlement in Iran. Azghad is a historical village located in Iran, which has been developed throughout centuries based on strong social and environmental systems. The research uses field studies in the form of observing the environment of Azghad village, initial and natural explanation of housing pattern and interviews with local people with a qualitative research approach and documentary studies examines the physical characteristics of this rural community. Through investigating the physical pattern of the village in the area under study, the elements of the social–physical system which form the residential type of the village were extracted. The comparison of the social and physical system of the residential fabric of the Azghad and its residential neighbourhoods showed that the residential pattern of Azghad could be introduced as an example of a collective housing model. The rural housing type is an example of a collective housing style that has been formed over time based on the shared values of residents and the activities they wanted to do collectively.